Publicacion Informativa de la Agencia Española de Proteccion de Datos en Ingles, adjuntamos la direccion, pues creemos es de importancia.
https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/canaldocumentacion/publicaciones/common/pdfs/AEPD_en.pdf
THE SPANISH DATA PROTECTION AGENCY (AEPD in the
Spanish acronym) is the public law authority overseeing compliance
with the legal provisions on the protection of personal
data, enjoying as such an absolute independence from the
Public Administration.
CITIZENS AS A PRIORITY
The AEPD is of the understanding that its functions must always
be conducted with a priority objective, that of guaranteeing the
protection of individual rights.
Accordingly, it undertakes actions specifically aimed at enhancing
citizens' capacity to effectively contribute to that protection.
In particular, the following could be pointed out:
Dissemination of its activities and of the right to
the protection of personal data
Information is a key element in fostering awareness among citizens
of their right to the protection of personal data. Bearing
this in mind and with the purpose of satisfying the increasing
demand for information and extending its public dissemination
actions, the AEPD has intensified its relations with the media,
increasing its personnel and material means dedicated to dissemination.
As a result of this strengthening, there has been an increase in
the demand for information by different media and in the
impact of such information. In this respect, in 2007, approximately
450 requests for interviews and information and about 850
impacts were counted in written and digital media.
Direct assistance in response to citizens' queries
The number of queries submitted to the AEPD's Citizen
Assistance Service clearly continues on an uptrend, with a 30%
increase in 2007 (in total, there were 47,741 queries).
From a qualitative standpoint, focusing on citizens' major doubts
and concerns, the issues that are most frequently queried have
to do with:
The scope of application of the system of guarantees of the
LOPD (Organic Act on Data Protection);
Functions of the AEPD;
Queries on the exercise of rights, especially the rights of
access and cancellation;
The obligation that entities collecting data have of informing
citizens of their rights and where they may exercise them.
There was also an important increase in the number of hits on
the AEPD website www.agpd.es, totalling 2,230,120 ( 47%).
Procedures to protect rights of individuals: of
access, to rectify, to cancel and to object
Citizens not only want to know what their rights are, they also
want the effective exercise of those rights to be guaranteed,
either directly by the data controllers or by requesting the intervention
of the AEPD. There was a substantial increase in the
number of requests for the protection of rights, with a 54%
increase in the number of requests for protection that were met
(879 altogether), where the rights to cancel (62%) and of access
(32%) were sought most often.
GUARANTEEING EFFECTIVE COMPLIANCE WITH THE
ORGANIC ACT ON DATA PROTECTION (LOPD)
This Organic Act is the basis of the Spanish system for guaranteeing
the right to protect personal data. The adequate compliance
by all of the agents involved is an essential instrument for
better protecting the rights of citizens. The following aspects
could be enphasized:
Registry of filing systems
The evolution of the data on the filing systems registered at the
Data Protection General Registry (RGPD) is considered a significant
reference point regarding compliance with the LOPD. The evolution of the registrations has continued upwards, reaching
in 2007 a number of more than one million filing systems registered
(1,017,266 entries in total), with the largest increases in
privately-owned filing systems, particularly those of small and
medium-sized companies and independent professionals, which
were the sectors where traditionally substantial flaws have appeared
in terms of compliance with the LOPD.
Inspection & sanction procedures
The greater degree of compliance with and awareness of the
regulations on data protection that arises from the above figures
does not mean that there has been a reduction of the AEPD'S
activities in terms of sanctions handed down for breaches of
the LOPD.
This has surely been enhanced by the greater awareness among
citizens of the guarantees to which they are entitled, as mentioned
above. This circumstance has led to an increase in the claims
for alleged breaches of the LOPD.
Thus, in 2007, the procedures iniciated as a result of complaints
lodged by citizens or due to an initiative of the Director of the
AEPD rose by around 7% to a total of 1,263.
The largest number of inspections had to do with telecommunication
companies and financial institutions, followed by videosurveillance,
with an increase of over 400% compared to the
previous year.
In terms of exercising the power to impose sanctions, in 2007,
the Spanish Data Protection Agency resolved 399 sanction procedures,
which represents an increase by 32.5% over the previous
year. In terms of financial penalties, the aggregate volume
of the fines imposed by the AEPD was € 19.6 million.
The figures provided above attest to the consolidation of the
increase in the AEPD'S inspection and penalisation activities
compared to previous years. The year 2007, however, stands
out for a distinct characteristic related to the exercise of its
authority to impose penalties: there has been an increase in
the number of decisions to put an end to the proceedings and
in the number of complaints that have been rejected, but also
the overall number of the sanctions that have been imposed
declined by nearly 20% compared to the previous year.
An initial appraisal of these data leads to a very important conclusion:
there is a greater awareness of the LOPD and the subjects
that are obliged by it are more diligent in terms of compliance.
However, it will be necessary to compare the figures for
the coming years to see the true scope of this trend.
ENHANCING THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR DATA
PROTECTION
The AEPD encourages the adoption of rules that are meant to fill
in or complete the legal framework for data protection, and it
also contributes to ensuring that the right to data protection is
treated correctly in the legal provisions adopted with purposes
that have no specific relation to data protection:
Approval in 2007 of the Regulation implementing
the Organic Act on Data Protection
The need to approve the Regulation for the implementation of
the LOPD as an instrument aimed at obtaining greater levels of
legal certainty in the application of the Act led to the publication
of Royal Decree 1720/2007, of 21 December, approving the
Regulation for the Implementation of the Organic Act on the
Protection of Personal Data.
The approval of the Regulation is the end of a long process featuring
a great deal of transparency and participation, with a
large range of companies contributing with their remarks.
The Regulation is meant to satisfy the following purposes:
To increase the legal certainty;
To reflect in the legal provisions the consolidated criteria in
the implementation of the LOPD both via Decisions of the
AEPD and especially in view of case law;
To respond to the concerns of the European Commission
regarding the transposition of Directive 95/46/EC;
To incorporate legislative policy criteria and complete the regulatory
implementation of the novelties introduced in the LOPD.
Issue of reports
Together with the approval of the Regulation, the AEPD has continued
working on the goal of achieving greater legal security,
both via mandatory advisory opinions on provisions of a general
nature being foreseen and answering the queries that citizens
and companies may have submitted to its Legal Department.
The number of advisory reports issued in 2007 in response to the
queries made by Public Administration bodies and private entities
totalled 555. In addition, the Legal Department issued 77
mandatory advisory opinions concerning general provisions
being foreseen .
It should be stressed that, in recent years, there has been an
increasing complexity in the issues that have been submitted to
the AEPD's consideration, with a decline in the number of very
simple queries, due to the important dissemination task that has
been carried out.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
Many of the important topics affecting data protection are of an
international scope, to the same extent that there has been a
globalisation in the movement of individuals, goods, services
and capital. In addition, there is the fact that certain concerns,
for instance those relating to security or the fight against terrorism,
reach well beyond national boundaries.
This important international dimension is present in all of the
activities of the AEPD, which has been and continues to be present
and well involved in a number of international forums.
CO-OPERATION WITH THE DATA PROTECTION
AGENCIES OF THE AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITIES
When performing its functions, the Spanish Data Protection
Agency relies on clear and effective mechanisms for co-ordinating
and collaborating with the Data Protection Agencies of the
Autonomous Communities of Catalonia, the Basque Country
and Madrid, in order to ensure the equality of all citizens in
terms of their right to protect their personal data.
THE AEPD & EMERGING RISKS
The protection of personal data has to adapt to the continuous
evolution of economic and social relations, as well as to rapid
technological changes. It is necessary that those changes be
anticipated and that answers be provided to allow citizens to
safeguard their right to privacy with respect to situations such
as:
The undue use of personal data on the Internet.
The main novelties that have been raised in relation to the protection
of personal data have arisen in the area of the services
provided via the Internet.
The development of these services has extended citizens' possibilities
in terms of exchanging and obtaining information, as
well as facilitating access to it whilst jeopardising the traditional
criteria for guaranteeing privacy and hence making an urgent
updating necessary.
On the one hand, it is apparent that the service offer of Internet
search engines entails a massive and selective processing of
users' data, the implications of which are often not known by
those users.
On the other hand, the AEPD has answered new complaints
relating to the possibility of citizens reacting against information
provided by a third party on an Internet forum or message board
without their consent or against other services such as YouTube.
It should also be specifically noted that there have been instances
of files containing personal data being found in P2P networks,
particularly in e-Mule, giving rise to penalties being imposed
due to infringements of the LOPD.
The AEPD, acknowledging the new possibilities with which citizens
are provided as a result of the development of Internet services,
has faced the challenge of adapting the guarantees set
out in the data protection provisions to these new situations,
especially in terms of the possibility of reacting against the global
dissemination of personal information.
Generalisation of video-surveillance systems
The substantial increase of video-surveillance in recent years is
largely due to citizens' initiatives in the quest towards a surveillance
society. The filing systems registered with the RGPD, which
declare that safety reasons are behind their video-surveillance,
are proof of this trend.
The registered filing systems have gone from 67 in 2003 and
700 in 2006 to 5,026 en 2007 ( 618% over the previous year).
The initial data for 2008 ratify the intensity of this trend.
At the same time, there has been an important reaction
against this practice as shown by the increase in the number
of complaints relating to video-surveillance. The inspections
involving video-surveillance have grown by 412.5% and as a
result, this matter accounts for the third largest number of
inspections.
Rising control of labour activities
The development of new technologies used in the workplace,
such as video-surveillance, the use of biometric data, electronic
mail and access to the Internet, among others, as well as the
implementation of internal whistleblowing systems, has intensified
the debate on the limits and guarantees that should accompany
the exercise of powers of control.
Intensification of international data flows
The Agency has recorded an important increase in the number
of international data transfers via notifications of filing systems
to the RGPD (8,838 transfers were declared).
It is necessary to apply a measure of caution when dealing with
international data flows that allow transfers from countries with
adequate levels of protection to other countries lacking such
levels. Hence, the monitoring of international data transfers
represents a priority for the AEPD, especially when business delocalisation
is involved.
In light of the challenges that have been described above and
building on the practical experience it has accumulated, the
AEPD has set forth a number of recommendations for policy
makers with the purpose of encouraging initiatives and actions
that will foster an effective guarantee of the fundamental right
to data protection in certain areas deserving a singular or specific
attention, specified in the following actions:
Developing procedures allowing copyright protection in a
manner compatible with the fundamental right to data protection;
Regulating the anonymized publication of judgements passed
by Courts of Law;
Regulating internal whistleblowing systems available to workers
within companies, outlining the activities in which it
may be necessary to establish these systems and guaranteeing
the confidentiality of those reporting and the rights of
those being reported on;
Development of specific public policy plans for the protection
of minors on the Internet;
Increased caution in order to prevent the undesirable
exchange of sensitive personal data on the Internet via P2P
networks;
Fostering of self-regulation among the media to guarantee
privacy and the protection of personal data, by encouraging
more respect for the usage in relation to the data protection
provisions;
Citizen guideline actions regarding the use of guarantees of
confidentiality for the recipients of emails;
Plan for the Fostering of Good Practices in terms of guaranteeing
privacy in Official Gazettes and Journals, by adopting
measures that, without affecting their purpose, will limit the
gathering of personal information by Internet search engines;
Local Strategy aimed at conforming the installation of traffic
control cameras to the provisions on the protection of personal
data.
miércoles, 20 de enero de 2010
martes, 12 de enero de 2010
REGULACION DE LAS “VIVIENDAS TURISTICAS EN LA COMUNIDAD VALENCIANA”
Entre los particulares, y empresas propietarios de viviendas turísticas en la CV, seguro se encuentran alguno de nuestros lectores. La regulación de las mismas, estaba pendiente de completarse, pues resultaba difusa y poco concreta.
Dichos fallos, fueron subsanados, mediante el Decreto 92/2009 de la Conselleria de Turisme de la Generalitat Valenciana, Regulador de las Viviendas Turisticas.Que fue publicado el pasado el pasado 7 de Julio de 2009, en el Diario Oficial de la Generalitat Valenciana.
¿Cuales son las notas más importantes de esta norma?
1º.- Nos define, por fin, la "vivienda turística".
2º.- Queda definido también el concepto de "empresa gestora".
3º.- Nos aclara la no obligatoriedad de inscripción del inmueble en el Registro de Apartamentos Turísticos.
Por nuestra parte, recomendar a los profesionales del sector inmobiliario, y a los propietarios de viviendas turísticas, la lectura del mismo, quedando a su disposición en nuestra calidad de asesores legales.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador LCS Valencia
Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
Dichos fallos, fueron subsanados, mediante el Decreto 92/2009 de la Conselleria de Turisme de la Generalitat Valenciana, Regulador de las Viviendas Turisticas.Que fue publicado el pasado el pasado 7 de Julio de 2009, en el Diario Oficial de la Generalitat Valenciana.
¿Cuales son las notas más importantes de esta norma?
1º.- Nos define, por fin, la "vivienda turística".
2º.- Queda definido también el concepto de "empresa gestora".
3º.- Nos aclara la no obligatoriedad de inscripción del inmueble en el Registro de Apartamentos Turísticos.
Por nuestra parte, recomendar a los profesionales del sector inmobiliario, y a los propietarios de viviendas turísticas, la lectura del mismo, quedando a su disposición en nuestra calidad de asesores legales.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador LCS Valencia
Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
AMPLIACION DEL PLAZO HIPOTECARIO GRATUITA.
1.- ¿Puedo pedirla yo? Sí, contando con que el préstamo vaya a nombre de persona física, la hipoteca recaiga sobre la vivienda habitual de la misma, y se solicitase dicho préstamo para la compra, construcción o rehabilitación de dicha vivienda habitual. Además el préstamo ha debido ser concedido por una entidad de crédito.
2.- ¿Aun esta abierto el plazo para solicitarlo? Sí, lo puedes pedir hasta el 22 de abril de 2010.
3.- ¿Merece la pena?, solo tú lo sabes, depende del plazo que ya hayas pactado, la cuantía del préstamo, y tu situación financiera familiar. Lo cierto, es que obviamente, serás un “hipotecado” por más tiempo, y que dependiendo de a cuantos años la firmases en un primer momento, la reducción de la cuota será mayor o menor.
4.- ¿ Que requisitos ha de cumplir la operación para que sea gratuita, y que incluye dicha gratuidad?
- La modificación solo ha ser relativa al plazo, alargándolo.
-La gratuidad, incluye el no tener que pagar gastos notariales ni registrales, la exención de pago de los Actos Jurídicos Documentados que deriven de dicho otorgamiento, y el no cobro de comisión por ampliación por la entidad bancaria.
5.- ¿Cómo lo hago? He aquí un resumen de los pasos a seguir:
1º.- Acordarlo con el Banco, es decir, tú se lo has de proponer, y él lo ha de aceptar. Recuerda, que si se modifica algo mas aparte del plazo, la operación ya estará sujeta a los costes normales.
2º.- Otorgamiento de Escritura Publica ante el Notario .En este caso en concreto, puedes pedir que se expida dicha escritura en papel “normal” (ósea no timbrado), y recuerda pedir que te den copia de la escritura.
3º.- Inscripción en el Registro de la Propiedad correspondiente (al igual que se inscribió la hipoteca que hoy estas modificando, han de inscribirse sus cambios).Puedes solicitar en la Notaria que pidan ellos telemáticamente (vía fax) la inscripción al Registro, o bien llevar tu la escritura al Registro para la inscripción, en estos dos caso, la inscripción será gratis.
6º.- ¿Cuando tendrá vigor dicha modificación?, ¿cuando notaré el cambio en la cuota? Una vez se haya inscrito la citada escritura, y se lo hagas saber debidamente al Banco, mediante aportación de copia de la escritura con los datos de inscripción, será cuando la modificación pase a ser efectiva.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador LCS Valencia
Correo electrónico: Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
2.- ¿Aun esta abierto el plazo para solicitarlo? Sí, lo puedes pedir hasta el 22 de abril de 2010.
3.- ¿Merece la pena?, solo tú lo sabes, depende del plazo que ya hayas pactado, la cuantía del préstamo, y tu situación financiera familiar. Lo cierto, es que obviamente, serás un “hipotecado” por más tiempo, y que dependiendo de a cuantos años la firmases en un primer momento, la reducción de la cuota será mayor o menor.
4.- ¿ Que requisitos ha de cumplir la operación para que sea gratuita, y que incluye dicha gratuidad?
- La modificación solo ha ser relativa al plazo, alargándolo.
-La gratuidad, incluye el no tener que pagar gastos notariales ni registrales, la exención de pago de los Actos Jurídicos Documentados que deriven de dicho otorgamiento, y el no cobro de comisión por ampliación por la entidad bancaria.
5.- ¿Cómo lo hago? He aquí un resumen de los pasos a seguir:
1º.- Acordarlo con el Banco, es decir, tú se lo has de proponer, y él lo ha de aceptar. Recuerda, que si se modifica algo mas aparte del plazo, la operación ya estará sujeta a los costes normales.
2º.- Otorgamiento de Escritura Publica ante el Notario .En este caso en concreto, puedes pedir que se expida dicha escritura en papel “normal” (ósea no timbrado), y recuerda pedir que te den copia de la escritura.
3º.- Inscripción en el Registro de la Propiedad correspondiente (al igual que se inscribió la hipoteca que hoy estas modificando, han de inscribirse sus cambios).Puedes solicitar en la Notaria que pidan ellos telemáticamente (vía fax) la inscripción al Registro, o bien llevar tu la escritura al Registro para la inscripción, en estos dos caso, la inscripción será gratis.
6º.- ¿Cuando tendrá vigor dicha modificación?, ¿cuando notaré el cambio en la cuota? Una vez se haya inscrito la citada escritura, y se lo hagas saber debidamente al Banco, mediante aportación de copia de la escritura con los datos de inscripción, será cuando la modificación pase a ser efectiva.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador LCS Valencia
Correo electrónico: Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
¿Le puedo devolver el piso al Banco?
La anterior, esta siendo, desgraciadamente, una pregunta mas que habitual, en estos días, incluyendo entre quienes la formulan, a muchos que con ilusión compraron su casa de vacaciones cerca del sol, y hoy, no pueden hacer frente a los pagos. Bien, la respuesta es que SI, pero, con matices, me explico:
Como ya anunciaba el termino correcto es “Dacion en Pago”, y la misma, como tal, no es mas que un acuerdo entre las partes (el Banco o entidad financiera), y tu (el “hipotecado”, o titular de un crédito del carácter que sea.)O sea, que se trata de una propuesta al Banco que este, previo estudio a tal efecto, en que es pieza esencial la realización de una nueva tasación de la vivienda que habrás de pagar tú, ha de aceptar o no, por la que en pago de tu deuda, le atribuyes el inmueble.
¿Qué es lo que suelen pedir los Bancos, para realizar el estudio?, generalmente, salvo casos especiales, en que nos indiquen algún requisito más:
- Estar al corriente en los pagos de luz y agua.
- Estar al corriente en los pagos de la Comunidad de Vecinos.
- No tener ningún recibo de IBI pendiente.
En cuanto a si influye o no, a la hora de aceptar realizar el estudio el que haya alguna cuota pendiente de pago, salvo casos excepcionales, esto no supone inconveniente, ya que al fin y al cabo se trata de llegar a un acuerdo entre las partes, previo a la vía judicial.
¿Cómo tiene lugar la Dación en Pago?, mediante el otorgamiento de una escritura publica a tales efectos, en la que se pone de manifiesto la deuda que se mantiene con la entidad bancaria correspondiente, y que en pago de la misma se realiza la aportación de dicho bien, que es aceptada, los gastos de otorgamiento de la citada escritura, correrán de cargo de quien las partes acuerden.
La redacción del artículo viene dada, por la experiencia que de la gestión, de cantidad de ellos, tenemos en este momento.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador de LCS-Valencia
Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
Como ya anunciaba el termino correcto es “Dacion en Pago”, y la misma, como tal, no es mas que un acuerdo entre las partes (el Banco o entidad financiera), y tu (el “hipotecado”, o titular de un crédito del carácter que sea.)O sea, que se trata de una propuesta al Banco que este, previo estudio a tal efecto, en que es pieza esencial la realización de una nueva tasación de la vivienda que habrás de pagar tú, ha de aceptar o no, por la que en pago de tu deuda, le atribuyes el inmueble.
¿Qué es lo que suelen pedir los Bancos, para realizar el estudio?, generalmente, salvo casos especiales, en que nos indiquen algún requisito más:
- Estar al corriente en los pagos de luz y agua.
- Estar al corriente en los pagos de la Comunidad de Vecinos.
- No tener ningún recibo de IBI pendiente.
En cuanto a si influye o no, a la hora de aceptar realizar el estudio el que haya alguna cuota pendiente de pago, salvo casos excepcionales, esto no supone inconveniente, ya que al fin y al cabo se trata de llegar a un acuerdo entre las partes, previo a la vía judicial.
¿Cómo tiene lugar la Dación en Pago?, mediante el otorgamiento de una escritura publica a tales efectos, en la que se pone de manifiesto la deuda que se mantiene con la entidad bancaria correspondiente, y que en pago de la misma se realiza la aportación de dicho bien, que es aceptada, los gastos de otorgamiento de la citada escritura, correrán de cargo de quien las partes acuerden.
La redacción del artículo viene dada, por la experiencia que de la gestión, de cantidad de ellos, tenemos en este momento.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador de LCS-Valencia
Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
¡Subastan mi casa!, ¿me queda alguna opción para salvarla, sin tener que pagar el total de la hipoteca?
La pregunta que nos hacemos, desgraciadamente bastante común a día de hoy y que sabemos causa desasosiego e intranquilidad, tanto a nacionales como extranjeros, pues la crisis no entiende de procedencias, ofrece la siguiente respuesta tranquilizadora.
Caso de que efectivamente sea tu “casa”, es decir la vivienda habitual ( lo cual, viene ocurriendo a mucho extranjero que abandonó su país y llegó a estas tierras, siguiendo al sol), y por una sola vez en la vida del crédito hipotecario (o sea, mientras que este vigente la hipoteca), caso de haberse iniciado demanda de Ejecución Hipotecaria ( aquella por la que se ejecuta la hipoteca impagada), podemos salvar el bien, y evitar la efectiva celebración de la subasta, abonando la cantidad exacta vencida por principal e intereses en la fecha de presentación de la demanda, más los intereses de demora y vencimientos del préstamo que se hayan producido, hasta la fecha en que se haga dicho pago, todo ello, en virtud del articulo 693.3 de la Ley de Enjuiciamiento Civil.
¿Cómo sabemos a que cuantía concreta asciende lo que hemos de pagar? Porque nos personaremos con abogado y procurador en el procedimiento que se siga en el juzgado, y ellos obtendrán dicha información pidiéndoselo formalmente al acreedor. Además el pago, lo realizaremos mediante ingreso específico en la cuenta del juzgado en que constará cuál es el procedimiento que nos afecta, en todo ello intervendrá nuestro letrado, evitándonos así más quebraderos de cabeza que el de la obtención del dinero. Es importante, saber, que habrás de correr con los gastos del procedimiento (las costas), dados los inconvenientes que se causan al Banco, así como abonar a tu abogado y procurador, con los que te aconsejo firmes una hoja de encargo profesional (presupuesto.)
Esperamos esta información te haya sido de interés.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador LCS- Valencia
Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
Caso de que efectivamente sea tu “casa”, es decir la vivienda habitual ( lo cual, viene ocurriendo a mucho extranjero que abandonó su país y llegó a estas tierras, siguiendo al sol), y por una sola vez en la vida del crédito hipotecario (o sea, mientras que este vigente la hipoteca), caso de haberse iniciado demanda de Ejecución Hipotecaria ( aquella por la que se ejecuta la hipoteca impagada), podemos salvar el bien, y evitar la efectiva celebración de la subasta, abonando la cantidad exacta vencida por principal e intereses en la fecha de presentación de la demanda, más los intereses de demora y vencimientos del préstamo que se hayan producido, hasta la fecha en que se haga dicho pago, todo ello, en virtud del articulo 693.3 de la Ley de Enjuiciamiento Civil.
¿Cómo sabemos a que cuantía concreta asciende lo que hemos de pagar? Porque nos personaremos con abogado y procurador en el procedimiento que se siga en el juzgado, y ellos obtendrán dicha información pidiéndoselo formalmente al acreedor. Además el pago, lo realizaremos mediante ingreso específico en la cuenta del juzgado en que constará cuál es el procedimiento que nos afecta, en todo ello intervendrá nuestro letrado, evitándonos así más quebraderos de cabeza que el de la obtención del dinero. Es importante, saber, que habrás de correr con los gastos del procedimiento (las costas), dados los inconvenientes que se causan al Banco, así como abonar a tu abogado y procurador, con los que te aconsejo firmes una hoja de encargo profesional (presupuesto.)
Esperamos esta información te haya sido de interés.
Beatriz Edo Alfonso- Abogado colaborador LCS- Valencia
Beatriz.edo-alfonso@lcs-valencia.eu
domingo, 10 de enero de 2010
Distribution commerciale Espagne/Belgique
Lorsqu'un distributeur et un fabricant signent un contrat en vue de la distribution de marchandises sur le territoire belge, ceux-ci doivent savoir que, même si le contrat prévoit l’application du droit espagnol et des principes généraux du commerce international, le droit belge contient des normes impératives particulièrement protectrices des droits du distributeur.
Il s’agit de la loi du 27 juillet 1961 relative à la résiliation unilatérale des concessions de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée.
En vertu de l’article 4 de cette loi, le concessionnaire lésé lors d'une résiliation d'une concession de vente produisant ses effets dans tout ou partie du territoire belge, peut en tout cas assigner le concédant, en Belgique, soit devant le juge de son propre domicile, soit devant le juge du domicile ou du siège du concédant.
Dans le cas où le litige est porté devant un tribunal belge, celui-ci appliquera exclusivement la loi belge.
Il s’agit d’une disposition impérative à laquelle ne peut faire échec une clause d’arbitrage conclue avant la naissance du litige et prévoyant l’application d’un droit étranger.
En vertu de la loi belge, les clauses privant le Distributeur d’un préavis et d’une indemnité de clientèle en cas de résiliation d’une concession de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée ayant des effets sur le territoire belge, hormis la faute grave du concessionnaire, ne sont pas valables.
En ce qui concerne le mode de calcul des éventuelles indemnités en cas de résiliation d’un contrat de concession de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée sans faute du concessionnaire, les principes sont les suivants :
Conformément à la loi du 27 juillet 1961 sur la résiliation unilatérale des concessions de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée et à la jurisprudence afférente à l’application de cette loi, l’octroi d’un préavis, d’une éventuelle indemnité complémentaire de clientèle, d’une indemnité pour frais et la reprise du stock peuvent être exigés.
A défaut d’accord entre les parties, le juge détermine quelle est la durée du préavis ou le montant de la juste indemnité.
a) Préavis ou juste indemnité
La loi offre la possibilité au concédant qui souhaite mettre fin au contrat de proposer au concessionnaire soit un délai de préavis raisonnable, soit une juste indemnité.
La loi ne fixe pas de délais en manière telle qu’il appartient aux parties, ou le cas échéant, au juge, d’estimer des durées ou montants suffisants.
* Le préavis raisonnable doit permettre au concessionnaire d'exécuter les obligations qu'il a contractées envers les tiers et de se procurer une source de revenus nets équivalente.
Différents critères sont pris en considération pour fixer ces durées/montants, à savoir et notamment :
- Il faut que le préavis soit d’une durée suffisante pour permettre en principe à la partie à laquelle il est notifié de se retrouver une concession équivalente à celle qu'il a perdue, le cas échéant moyennant reconversion totale ou partielle de ses activités. Le préavis doit, au minimum, laisser au concessionnaire le temps de supprimer certains frais fixes ou de retrouver une source de revenus couvrant les frais incompressibles ; Le préavis raisonnable auquel est tenu le concédant n'est pas celui dont la durée permet au concessionnaire d'être assuré, dans tous les cas, de revenus identiques à ceux procurés par la concession perdue, quel que soit l'aléa de cette recherche.
- Un autre critère important est la durée des relations ainsi que la part de la concession dans l’ensemble des activités du concessionnaire, de même que l’importance des investissements faits pour l’exploitation de la concession. Un élément pondérateur est la disponibilité de produits de remplacement ;
- L’étendue du territoire et de la clientèle concédés ;
- La renommée des produits (plus les produits sont connus et appréciés plus il est difficile de trouver une concession similaire) ;
- l’évolution du chiffre d’affaires : si la concession est déficitaire, le concessionnaire ne peut normalement pas prétendre à un préavis.
Généralement, les délais de préavis varient entre 3 et 48 mois.
Ni la circonstance que le préavis raisonnable auquel le concessionnaire a droit se détermine dès la dénonciation du contrat, ni l'équité qui doit guider le juge n'excluent que, lors de l'évaluation du préavis raisonnable, celui-ci tienne compte de tous les éléments dont il dispose au moment de sa décision, notamment du fait que le concessionnaire ait, dans les faits, rapidement retrouvé une concession équivalente.
La durée du préavis raisonnable peut donc être réduite par le juge en raison de circonstances de fait survenues ultérieurement et qui diminuent le préjudice réellement subi par le concessionnaire.
* Pour l’estimation de l’indemnité compensatoire de préavis, dans l’hypothèse où le concédant résilie la concession sans préavis ou avec un préavis insuffisant, on considère que la partie qui subit la résiliation sans préavis a droit à l’équivalent de tous les avantages qu’elle aurait retiré de l’exécution de la période de préavis dont elle n’a pas bénéficié.
L’indemnité due au concessionnaire se détermine généralement sur base du bénéfice semi brut, c’est à dire du bénéfice net (apparaissant au compte de résultat) calculé en fonction de la moyenne des résultats du concessionnaire au cours des deux ou trois exercices précédents, majoré des frais généraux incompressibles, c’est-à-dire de ceux que le concessionnaire continue à devoir exposer pendant la durée de préavis non exécutée, nonobstant la fin de l’exploitation de la concession (apparaissant également au compte de résultat sous la rubrique services et biens divers).
On considère généralement que constituent des frais incompressibles, le loyer, la location d’un entrepôt de stockage, les frais de chauffage, d’éclairage, d’entretien des locaux et des machines, le coût des abonnements aux revues professionnelles, les assurances (bâtiment, véhicules…), les appointements et charges sociales.
b) Indemnité dite complémentaire
Cette indemnité est évaluée selon les cas, en fonction des éléments suivants :
la plus-value notable de clientèle apportée par le concessionnaire et qui reste acquise au concédant après la résiliation du contrat (a)
les frais que le concessionnaire a exposés en vue de l’exploitation de la concession et qui profiteraient au concédant après l’expiration du contrat (b)
les dédits que le concessionnaire doit au personnel qu’il est dans l’obligation de licencier par suite de la résiliation de la concession de vente (c).
L’indemnité complémentaire équitable représente généralement soit un pourcentage du chiffre d’affaires du concessionnaire sur base de la période de référence (10 %, 15 %, 25 %, …), soit un nombre de mois de bénéfice brut, semi-net ou net sur base de la période de référence (3 mois, 6 mois, 12 mois, 24 mois).
Pour effectuer le calcul en lui-même, les Cours et les Tribunaux recourent souvent à l’avis d’un expert, qui est le mieux formé pour analyser la comptabilité et les contrats en cours du concessionnaire.
a) L’indemnité de clientèle
Pour établir la plus-value de clientèle, on compare habituellement les chiffres réalisés par le concessionnaire dans le territoire concédé au début et à la fin de la concession.
La condition de l'apport du concessionnaire n'exige pas que la plus‐value de clientèle soit exclusivement due aux efforts de celui‐ci. Le fait que cette plus‐value soit le fait des efforts partagés entre le concédant et le concessionnaire ne supprime pas le droit à l'indemnité complémentaire prévue par la loi. La clientèle est un actif dont la valeur est fonction de son aptitude à produire des bénéfices. Pour l'évaluation de l'indemnité de clientèle, il convient donc de tenir compte du bénéfice brut que la clientèle a permis de réaliser.
La détermination de la plus‐value de clientèle est fonction de la mesure dans laquelle le concédant profite des efforts du concessionnaire en récupérant la clientèle sans avoir à fournir personnellement d'efforts ou d'investissement.
Ne peut donc être pris en compte l'apport de clientèle qui résulte de la propre renommée de la marque du concédant.
Pour satisfaire au critère d'équité fixé par la loi, le juge peut prendre en considération tous les éléments dont il a connaissance au moment de sa décision, notamment la situation du concessionnaire après la résiliation du contrat.
b) Les frais exposés par le concessionnaire qui profitent au concédant
Il s’agit généralement de frais de participation des cadeaux professionnels ou des frais de publicité pour autant que cette publicité ait un effet prolongé dans le temps.
c) Indemnité de licenciement
Cette indemnité n’est due bien évidemment que pour autant que la résiliation de la concession entraîne la nécessité de licencier du personnel.
c) Reprise des stocks
Le concessionnaire demande souvent au juge la reprise par le concédant de son stock de marchandises invendues, ce qui est souvent accordé par les tribunaux.
En droit belge, sauf disposition contractuelle contraire, le concédant est obligé de reprendre le stock encore utilisable ou de payer une indemnité pour celui-ci.
La base juridique de cette obligation est l'article 1134, 3 du Code Civil belge, selon lequel les contrats doivent être exécutés de bonne foi, lequel est étranger à la loi impérative du 27 juillet 1961.
En droit espagnol, applicable au contrat pour tout ce qui n’est pas régi par la loi de 1961 lorsqu'une clause de désignation du droit applicable le prévoit, l’article 1258 du Code civil prévoit une disposition similaire mais la jurisprudence espagnole n’en déduit pas forcément l’obligation pour le concédant de reprendre les stocks.
En ce qui concerne la valeur du stock, elle est évaluée à l'aide des pièces actuelles, toujours fabriquées et utilisées au moment où la reprise du stock est demandée.
Une certaine jurisprudence estime que la demande de reprise du stock doit se faire immédiatement et pas plusieurs années après la fin de la relation.
Toutes les pièces de rechange ne doivent pas être reprises.
La reprise ne concerne que les pièces de rechange neuves, originales, intactes et non vendues. Elles doivent être rachetées au prix catalogue en vigueur à la date du rachat, moyennant le retrait des réductions sur le stock en vigueur à cette date.
La règle de reprise est également valable pour le matériel, uniquement approprié à la réparation et à l'entretien des produits concédés.
Tribunaux compétents
En cas de résiliation de la concession sans faute du concessionnaire, si vous souhaitez que la loi du 27 juillet 1961 soit appliquée à la part belge de la concession, les Tribunaux belges devront obligatoirement être saisis.
En Belgique, la longueur des procédures dépend de la capacité de défense de l’adversaire et de la nature des arguments et exceptions qui seront invoqués. En général, dans ce type de procédure, il faut compter environ une année pour obtenir un jugement en première instance. Si un expert est désigné pour évaluer les indemnités, la durée de la procédure peut être doublée.
Il s’agit de la loi du 27 juillet 1961 relative à la résiliation unilatérale des concessions de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée.
En vertu de l’article 4 de cette loi, le concessionnaire lésé lors d'une résiliation d'une concession de vente produisant ses effets dans tout ou partie du territoire belge, peut en tout cas assigner le concédant, en Belgique, soit devant le juge de son propre domicile, soit devant le juge du domicile ou du siège du concédant.
Dans le cas où le litige est porté devant un tribunal belge, celui-ci appliquera exclusivement la loi belge.
Il s’agit d’une disposition impérative à laquelle ne peut faire échec une clause d’arbitrage conclue avant la naissance du litige et prévoyant l’application d’un droit étranger.
En vertu de la loi belge, les clauses privant le Distributeur d’un préavis et d’une indemnité de clientèle en cas de résiliation d’une concession de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée ayant des effets sur le territoire belge, hormis la faute grave du concessionnaire, ne sont pas valables.
En ce qui concerne le mode de calcul des éventuelles indemnités en cas de résiliation d’un contrat de concession de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée sans faute du concessionnaire, les principes sont les suivants :
Conformément à la loi du 27 juillet 1961 sur la résiliation unilatérale des concessions de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée et à la jurisprudence afférente à l’application de cette loi, l’octroi d’un préavis, d’une éventuelle indemnité complémentaire de clientèle, d’une indemnité pour frais et la reprise du stock peuvent être exigés.
A défaut d’accord entre les parties, le juge détermine quelle est la durée du préavis ou le montant de la juste indemnité.
a) Préavis ou juste indemnité
La loi offre la possibilité au concédant qui souhaite mettre fin au contrat de proposer au concessionnaire soit un délai de préavis raisonnable, soit une juste indemnité.
La loi ne fixe pas de délais en manière telle qu’il appartient aux parties, ou le cas échéant, au juge, d’estimer des durées ou montants suffisants.
* Le préavis raisonnable doit permettre au concessionnaire d'exécuter les obligations qu'il a contractées envers les tiers et de se procurer une source de revenus nets équivalente.
Différents critères sont pris en considération pour fixer ces durées/montants, à savoir et notamment :
- Il faut que le préavis soit d’une durée suffisante pour permettre en principe à la partie à laquelle il est notifié de se retrouver une concession équivalente à celle qu'il a perdue, le cas échéant moyennant reconversion totale ou partielle de ses activités. Le préavis doit, au minimum, laisser au concessionnaire le temps de supprimer certains frais fixes ou de retrouver une source de revenus couvrant les frais incompressibles ; Le préavis raisonnable auquel est tenu le concédant n'est pas celui dont la durée permet au concessionnaire d'être assuré, dans tous les cas, de revenus identiques à ceux procurés par la concession perdue, quel que soit l'aléa de cette recherche.
- Un autre critère important est la durée des relations ainsi que la part de la concession dans l’ensemble des activités du concessionnaire, de même que l’importance des investissements faits pour l’exploitation de la concession. Un élément pondérateur est la disponibilité de produits de remplacement ;
- L’étendue du territoire et de la clientèle concédés ;
- La renommée des produits (plus les produits sont connus et appréciés plus il est difficile de trouver une concession similaire) ;
- l’évolution du chiffre d’affaires : si la concession est déficitaire, le concessionnaire ne peut normalement pas prétendre à un préavis.
Généralement, les délais de préavis varient entre 3 et 48 mois.
Ni la circonstance que le préavis raisonnable auquel le concessionnaire a droit se détermine dès la dénonciation du contrat, ni l'équité qui doit guider le juge n'excluent que, lors de l'évaluation du préavis raisonnable, celui-ci tienne compte de tous les éléments dont il dispose au moment de sa décision, notamment du fait que le concessionnaire ait, dans les faits, rapidement retrouvé une concession équivalente.
La durée du préavis raisonnable peut donc être réduite par le juge en raison de circonstances de fait survenues ultérieurement et qui diminuent le préjudice réellement subi par le concessionnaire.
* Pour l’estimation de l’indemnité compensatoire de préavis, dans l’hypothèse où le concédant résilie la concession sans préavis ou avec un préavis insuffisant, on considère que la partie qui subit la résiliation sans préavis a droit à l’équivalent de tous les avantages qu’elle aurait retiré de l’exécution de la période de préavis dont elle n’a pas bénéficié.
L’indemnité due au concessionnaire se détermine généralement sur base du bénéfice semi brut, c’est à dire du bénéfice net (apparaissant au compte de résultat) calculé en fonction de la moyenne des résultats du concessionnaire au cours des deux ou trois exercices précédents, majoré des frais généraux incompressibles, c’est-à-dire de ceux que le concessionnaire continue à devoir exposer pendant la durée de préavis non exécutée, nonobstant la fin de l’exploitation de la concession (apparaissant également au compte de résultat sous la rubrique services et biens divers).
On considère généralement que constituent des frais incompressibles, le loyer, la location d’un entrepôt de stockage, les frais de chauffage, d’éclairage, d’entretien des locaux et des machines, le coût des abonnements aux revues professionnelles, les assurances (bâtiment, véhicules…), les appointements et charges sociales.
b) Indemnité dite complémentaire
Cette indemnité est évaluée selon les cas, en fonction des éléments suivants :
la plus-value notable de clientèle apportée par le concessionnaire et qui reste acquise au concédant après la résiliation du contrat (a)
les frais que le concessionnaire a exposés en vue de l’exploitation de la concession et qui profiteraient au concédant après l’expiration du contrat (b)
les dédits que le concessionnaire doit au personnel qu’il est dans l’obligation de licencier par suite de la résiliation de la concession de vente (c).
L’indemnité complémentaire équitable représente généralement soit un pourcentage du chiffre d’affaires du concessionnaire sur base de la période de référence (10 %, 15 %, 25 %, …), soit un nombre de mois de bénéfice brut, semi-net ou net sur base de la période de référence (3 mois, 6 mois, 12 mois, 24 mois).
Pour effectuer le calcul en lui-même, les Cours et les Tribunaux recourent souvent à l’avis d’un expert, qui est le mieux formé pour analyser la comptabilité et les contrats en cours du concessionnaire.
a) L’indemnité de clientèle
Pour établir la plus-value de clientèle, on compare habituellement les chiffres réalisés par le concessionnaire dans le territoire concédé au début et à la fin de la concession.
La condition de l'apport du concessionnaire n'exige pas que la plus‐value de clientèle soit exclusivement due aux efforts de celui‐ci. Le fait que cette plus‐value soit le fait des efforts partagés entre le concédant et le concessionnaire ne supprime pas le droit à l'indemnité complémentaire prévue par la loi. La clientèle est un actif dont la valeur est fonction de son aptitude à produire des bénéfices. Pour l'évaluation de l'indemnité de clientèle, il convient donc de tenir compte du bénéfice brut que la clientèle a permis de réaliser.
La détermination de la plus‐value de clientèle est fonction de la mesure dans laquelle le concédant profite des efforts du concessionnaire en récupérant la clientèle sans avoir à fournir personnellement d'efforts ou d'investissement.
Ne peut donc être pris en compte l'apport de clientèle qui résulte de la propre renommée de la marque du concédant.
Pour satisfaire au critère d'équité fixé par la loi, le juge peut prendre en considération tous les éléments dont il a connaissance au moment de sa décision, notamment la situation du concessionnaire après la résiliation du contrat.
b) Les frais exposés par le concessionnaire qui profitent au concédant
Il s’agit généralement de frais de participation des cadeaux professionnels ou des frais de publicité pour autant que cette publicité ait un effet prolongé dans le temps.
c) Indemnité de licenciement
Cette indemnité n’est due bien évidemment que pour autant que la résiliation de la concession entraîne la nécessité de licencier du personnel.
c) Reprise des stocks
Le concessionnaire demande souvent au juge la reprise par le concédant de son stock de marchandises invendues, ce qui est souvent accordé par les tribunaux.
En droit belge, sauf disposition contractuelle contraire, le concédant est obligé de reprendre le stock encore utilisable ou de payer une indemnité pour celui-ci.
La base juridique de cette obligation est l'article 1134, 3 du Code Civil belge, selon lequel les contrats doivent être exécutés de bonne foi, lequel est étranger à la loi impérative du 27 juillet 1961.
En droit espagnol, applicable au contrat pour tout ce qui n’est pas régi par la loi de 1961 lorsqu'une clause de désignation du droit applicable le prévoit, l’article 1258 du Code civil prévoit une disposition similaire mais la jurisprudence espagnole n’en déduit pas forcément l’obligation pour le concédant de reprendre les stocks.
En ce qui concerne la valeur du stock, elle est évaluée à l'aide des pièces actuelles, toujours fabriquées et utilisées au moment où la reprise du stock est demandée.
Une certaine jurisprudence estime que la demande de reprise du stock doit se faire immédiatement et pas plusieurs années après la fin de la relation.
Toutes les pièces de rechange ne doivent pas être reprises.
La reprise ne concerne que les pièces de rechange neuves, originales, intactes et non vendues. Elles doivent être rachetées au prix catalogue en vigueur à la date du rachat, moyennant le retrait des réductions sur le stock en vigueur à cette date.
La règle de reprise est également valable pour le matériel, uniquement approprié à la réparation et à l'entretien des produits concédés.
Tribunaux compétents
En cas de résiliation de la concession sans faute du concessionnaire, si vous souhaitez que la loi du 27 juillet 1961 soit appliquée à la part belge de la concession, les Tribunaux belges devront obligatoirement être saisis.
En Belgique, la longueur des procédures dépend de la capacité de défense de l’adversaire et de la nature des arguments et exceptions qui seront invoqués. En général, dans ce type de procédure, il faut compter environ une année pour obtenir un jugement en première instance. Si un expert est désigné pour évaluer les indemnités, la durée de la procédure peut être doublée.
Procedural aspects of protecting IPR in Belgium
IPR owners in Belgium have the following
procedural rights in respect of infringers:
1. A delivery-up procedure meaning certain IPR
owners can obtain a court order and thereby
enter an infringer’s premises (or those of a
connected third party) unannounced and seize
any instruments or documents that could
establish the alleged infringement. To obtain
such right, the rights holder files a petition at
the court where the relevant premises are
located. A ruling will be made within eight
days at which the petitioner does not have to
be present but may have to deposit a
guarantee. Any order can be appealed or
opposed but otherwise must be acted upon
within a month.
2. A summary procedure may be invoked, if
urgency can be established, and the rights
holder can quickly obtain sequestrations,
reports or assessments that estimate damage
and any other measures deemed necessary for
the safeguarding of rights. Summary
procedure petitions do not prejudice the main
case and are brought by a summons which
typically takes two days, or longer if the
respondent is not based in Belgium. In
extreme cases, however, the court will deal
with a summons virtually immediately, even on
a public holiday and will abrogate any other
procedural timings.
3. A customs procedure is also available permitting
customs authorities, at the request of the rights
holder, to suspend temporarily the passing
through customs of any products suspected to
be infringing goods, to allow the rights holder to
establish infringement via the courts.
4. Finally, rights holders can use any infringement
proceedings designated by specific legislation
relating to the particular IPR in question, for
example:
• in respect of copyright infringements, an
occurrence report and a suspension of any
infringing activities can be obtained;
• to protect trade marks, a rights holder can
take actions for: the transfer of ill-gotten
gains and for the taking of accounts;
ownership of the infringing goods and the
instruments used to produce them;
destruction of the infringing goods; and
information concerning the identity of any
third parties involved;
• drawings and models can be protected by
petitioning the Belgian Commercial Court
to order the suspension of infringing acts,
the seizure of infringing products and any
other sanction indicated under Belgian law;
• patent infringement proceedings can be
brought, even where a contravening party
has acted in good faith. Following the
aggrieved party’s petition, the court can
order: the suspension of any infringing acts;
damages; publication of the judgement; and
the confiscation of any objects made in
infringement of the patent and any
instruments especially intended for their
manufacture.
procedural rights in respect of infringers:
1. A delivery-up procedure meaning certain IPR
owners can obtain a court order and thereby
enter an infringer’s premises (or those of a
connected third party) unannounced and seize
any instruments or documents that could
establish the alleged infringement. To obtain
such right, the rights holder files a petition at
the court where the relevant premises are
located. A ruling will be made within eight
days at which the petitioner does not have to
be present but may have to deposit a
guarantee. Any order can be appealed or
opposed but otherwise must be acted upon
within a month.
2. A summary procedure may be invoked, if
urgency can be established, and the rights
holder can quickly obtain sequestrations,
reports or assessments that estimate damage
and any other measures deemed necessary for
the safeguarding of rights. Summary
procedure petitions do not prejudice the main
case and are brought by a summons which
typically takes two days, or longer if the
respondent is not based in Belgium. In
extreme cases, however, the court will deal
with a summons virtually immediately, even on
a public holiday and will abrogate any other
procedural timings.
3. A customs procedure is also available permitting
customs authorities, at the request of the rights
holder, to suspend temporarily the passing
through customs of any products suspected to
be infringing goods, to allow the rights holder to
establish infringement via the courts.
4. Finally, rights holders can use any infringement
proceedings designated by specific legislation
relating to the particular IPR in question, for
example:
• in respect of copyright infringements, an
occurrence report and a suspension of any
infringing activities can be obtained;
• to protect trade marks, a rights holder can
take actions for: the transfer of ill-gotten
gains and for the taking of accounts;
ownership of the infringing goods and the
instruments used to produce them;
destruction of the infringing goods; and
information concerning the identity of any
third parties involved;
• drawings and models can be protected by
petitioning the Belgian Commercial Court
to order the suspension of infringing acts,
the seizure of infringing products and any
other sanction indicated under Belgian law;
• patent infringement proceedings can be
brought, even where a contravening party
has acted in good faith. Following the
aggrieved party’s petition, the court can
order: the suspension of any infringing acts;
damages; publication of the judgement; and
the confiscation of any objects made in
infringement of the patent and any
instruments especially intended for their
manufacture.
Dispute resolution in Belgium
1. INTRODUCTION TO BELGIAN LAW
1.1 LEGAL SYSTEM
Belgium is a civil law country. Continental lawyers think in general terms of codes, while common law lawyers think in detailed terms of legal precedents.
1.2 SOURCES OF LAW
1.2.1 Common Law
Customary law consists of all the rules drawn from a community’s repeated practice, made mandatory by that same community.
1.2.2 Statute Law
The Law was for very many centuries an ancillary source of law. It became the principal source of law after the French revolution. The term “law” can be understood in the broad sense or in the restricted sense. In the broad sense it covers: - the Constitution ; - the directly applicable international law within the Belgian legal order ; - the Act in the restricted sense, the decree and the order ; - decree-laws ; - decrees and regulations.
1.2.3 Case Law
Case Law covers all of the rules of law that emerge from the judgements handed down by Belgian and international courts. It is most important to specify that a judge cannot violate the existing rules of law, nor create a new one. He or she must necessarily apply the law and nothing but the law. If this is not sufficiently clear, he or she must inevitably interpret it. If it appears poorly suited to the situation before him or her, he or she can with extreme prudence remedy any gaps in the law. It is the legislator alone who is qualified to update, amend, repeal or supplement a law. The role of case law is however far from negligible in our law: the solution adopted by one court can indeed convince other courts of the soundness of the interpretation. Judges tend to conform to the jurisprudence of the higher courts so that their decisions are not reformed on appeal or set aside by the Court of Cassation. A concern for safety moreover induces judges to adopt a similar solution in similar cases. There is not always unanimity between the various Belgian courts: jurisprudence is sometimes hesitant and controversy is not rare.
1.2.4 Doctrine
Doctrine covers all of the works written by legal scholars. These texts have no mandatory force but certain authors exert a major influence on the evolution of the law and judges are often influenced by their work when making their decisions.
1.2.5 Equity
Equity can be defined as the general feeling of justice shared by all the members of the social group.
A judge can for example grant an ex aequo et bono indemnity: he or she rules in accordance with equity.
1.3 LIMITATION PERIOD
Statute Limitation is the extinction of the right to bring an action because of the time elapsed. Actions relating to property rights are statute barred after thirty years, while the limitation period of personal actions (contracts and civil liability) can extend up to five, ten and twenty years from the day following the action’s operative event.
Criminal limitation is five years from the tortious act, period likely to be increased to ten years by the effect of legal interruption.
The limitation of common fiscal law is in principle from three to five years.
2. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE AND THE JUDICIAL FUNCTION
2.1 JURISDICTION
2.1.1 Belgian Courts
A Belgian judge has jurisdiction only within the limits of the territory that is assigned to him or her by law, except for cases where the law disposes otherwise.
Apart from cases where the law expressly determines the competent judge to hear the demand, this can, as the plaintiff chooses, be brought before the judge of the residence of the defendant or of one of the defendants, of the place in which the litigious obligations or one of them were born or in which they are, were or should be carried out, of the elected residence for the execution of the process; of the place where the bailiff has spoken to the defendant in person if the latter or, if applicable, none of the defendants is domiciled in Belgium or abroad.
2.1.2 Rest of the World
Subject to the application of international treaties, of European Union law or of provisions contained in particular laws, the Act of 16 July 2004 transferring the Private International Law Code governs, in an international situation, the competence of the Belgian courts, the determination of the applicable law and the conditions of the effectiveness in Belgium of foreign legal decisions and notarial acts in civil and commercial matters. Generally, the Belgian courts are competent if the defendant lives in Belgium or has his or her usual residence there when the demand is filed.
The Belgian courts are also competent to hear and determine any demand concerning the exploitation of a secondary establishment of a legal entity with neither registered office nor customary business address in Belgium, when this establishment is located in Belgium when the demand is filed.
When the parties, in a matter where they dispose freely of their rights by virtue of Belgian law, are validly agreed to hear and determine disagreements born or to be born on the occasion of a legal report on the competence of the Belgian courts or of one of them, these alone are competent.
3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
3.1 COURT SYSTEM
3.1.1 The Court of Cassation
There is a one Court of Cassation for the entire country. The Court of Cassation consists of three chambers: the first chamber hears and determines appeals in civil and commercial matters, the second hears appeals in repressive matters and the third hears appeals in corporate matters. Other cases are distributed between the chambers by the first president. Each chamber comprises a French-speaking section and a Dutch-speaking section and each section is composed of five counsel.
The Court of Cassation does not rule on substance, except when a minister has to be tried. The Court controls the proper application of the law by the courts and the tribunals. It appraises only the legality of the disputed decisions. If the Court of Cassation finds that there has been an infringement of a law or a violation of form, either substantial or prescribed on pain of nullity, it sets aside the decision and returns the case to another court of appeal or to another court where it will be retried.
3.1.2 The Court of Appeal
There are five Courts of Appeal in Belgium, which comprise three kinds of chambers: civil chambers, criminal chambers and youth chambers. In principle, the cases are allocated to chambers comprising three counsel. The Court of Appeal hears and determines appeals of the decisions handed down in the first jurisdiction by the court of first instance, by the Commercial Court or by the president of one of the tribunals, provided the value of the demand exceeds €1,860. This court also has a number of specific competences; in particular with regard to rehabilitation, certain tax procedures and certain decisions relating to elections.
3.1.3 The Labour Court
There are five Labour Courts in Belgium, which are divided into chambers consisting of a Labour Court Counsel, assisted by two or four Corporate Counsel, who must ensure the equal representation of employees and employers or the self-employed.
The Labour Court hears and determines the appeals of decisions handed down in the first jurisdiction by the Labour Tribunals and by the Presidents of the Labour Tribunals.
3.1.4. The Assize Court
Participant in the legal organisation, the Assize Court is an intermittent court. It sits only when, on the requisitions of the Attorney General, the First President of the Court of Appeal orders the opening of a session, in order to examine a matter of its competence in a case that is in the process of being tried. Assize Courts are held in each province and in the Brussels-Capital administrative district. The Assize Court is composed of two distinct colleges: the jury, formed by twelve Belgian citizens drawn by lot by the president of the court, and three judges from the legal order. Subject to the competence of military courts, the Assize Court is competent for all the criminal cases and for political and media offences, with the exception of violations of the media laws inspired by racism or xenophobia. It is a sovereign court, i.e. it rules in final jurisdiction, without appeal.
3.1.5 The District Court
There is one District Court per legal district (27). It is composed of the President of the Court of First Instance, the President of the Commercial Court and the President of the Labour Tribunal. It contains only one chamber.
The District Court hears and determines certain disputes with regard to competence. When the competence of the court dealing with the substance of a case is disputed, the plaintiff can require the case to be referred before the District Court, which will settle the competence issue. The defendant does not benefit from this possibility. When a judge questions his or her own competence as a matter of course, he or she is required to order its referral before the District Court.
3.1.6 The Court of First Instance
There is one Court of First Instance per legal district. The Magistrates Court is part of the Court of First Instance. In principle, the demands are allocated to a chamber with a single judge. There are exceptions, especially for appeals of judgments handed down by Justices of the Peace and Police Courts. The Court of First Instance hears and determines all appeals except those expressly allocated by law to another court. Moreover, the Court of First Instance sits as an appeal court for judgments handed down by Justices of the Peace, except for judgments in relation to demands where the amount is not more than €1,860, which cannot be appealed. In addition, certain disputes must be brought before this court even if the value of the demand is less than €1,860: for example, demands relating to personal conditions, family situations, underage matters, divorce, and so on.
3.1.7 The Seizure Judge
The Seizure Judge, in close co-operation with the Court of First Instance, settles all demands involving attachments and modes of execution.
3.1.8 The Commercial Court
There is one Commercial Court per legal district. It contains one or more chambers. Each is presided over by a career magistrate and is in addition composed of two non-professional judges, called Consular Judges. The Commercial Court hears and determines in the first jurisdiction disputes between merchants relating to acts considered by law to be commercial and which are not of the general competence of the Justice of the Peace. It is also competent in certain specific fields (for example, disputes with regard to bankruptcy, maritime and river matters, trading companies, and so on) or when the parties have recourse to a typically commercial instrument (for example, bill of exchange, promissory note), but again only if the disputed amount is more than €1,860. However, a non-merchant who brings a lawsuit against a merchant has the option, if he or she prefers, of bringing the case before a Commercial Court. On the other hand, a merchant cannot bring a suit against a non-merchant before a Commercial Court. Lastly, the Commercial Court hears and determines judgments handed down by the Justice of the Peace in commercial matters and with regard to bills of exchange.
3.1.9 The Labour Tribunal
There is one Labour Tribunal per legal district. It contains at least two chambers, which are presided over by a career magistrate and are in addition composed of two or four non-professional judges, called Corporate Judges. The Labour Tribunal hears and determines disputes that arise from employment and apprenticeship contracts, disputes with regard to social security, concerning in particular industrial accident and occupational illnesses, employer social security obligations, unemployment, compulsory sickness and disability insurance, retirement, annual holidays, existential safety, and so on.
3.1.10 The Police Court
There are 45 Police Courts, each pertaining to a legal district. This court includes one or more chambers, presided over by a single judge. The Police Court hears and determines any demand relating to the reparation of injury resulting from a traffic accident, whatever the amount. It also acts on criminal matters.
3.1.11 The Justice of the Peace
There are more than 200 Justices of the Peace. This court has no chamber: there is only one Justice of the Peace per legal canton.
The Justice of the Peace hears and determines all demands of which the amount does not exceed €1,860, except those expressly allocated by law to another court. In addition to this general competence, certain special responsibilities are allocated to the Justice of the Peace, whatever the amount of the demand (letting of buildings, joint ownership, constraints, alimony expropriations, acts of adoption, notorious deeds, and so on).
3.2 CIVIL PROCEDURE
3.2.1 Ordinary Action
The civil procedure in principle is public, written and oral and in general has a single phase, the trial. A trial begins in principle with a summons emanating from the plaintiff, who is the person who feels affected in his or her rights. The summons is the bailiff’s instrument by which the plaintiff summons his or her adversary to appear before a judge at a precise time.
The plaintiff and the defendant can also agree to bring their dispute before a judge by means of voluntary appearance, thus saving the expense of the summons.
In cases expressly envisaged by the law, the plaintiff can institute proceedings by a petition filed at the clerk's office of the court of competent jurisdiction. The judge is bound by the parties’ demands: “The trial is the parties’ affair” (operative principle). The submissions, documents in which the various parties present their arguments in fact and law, must be submitted to the other parties and to the court before the hearing. Often, submissions are presented orally and commented on at the time of the lawyer’s pleadings or by the party in person during argument before the court. The parties can decide at any moment, by mutual agreement or unilaterally as the case may be, to stop the trial. It can be a question of abandonment of proceedings or of action. At the end of the trial, the court closes the arguments, deliberates and sets the day for the pronouncement of the decision or refers the pronouncement to a later, unspecified date.
3.2.2 Interim Measures
The Presidents of the Courts of First Instance, the Commercial Courts and the Labour Tribunals can make provisional rulings in cases of which they recognize the urgency, in matters that fall within their jurisdiction (appointing receivers and experts, safeguarding rights, hearing witnesses, and so on).
3.2.3 Enforcement Proceedings
Judgments can in particular be enforced via seizure of furniture, seizure of fruits, garnishments (in the hands of a third party up to the amount that he or she owes to the debtor), seizure of ships and boats, and seizure of real estate.
3.2.4 Enforcement of Foreign Decisions
In addition to the rules resulting from European regulations relating to the recognition and execution of decisions as well as to the European executory title, the Act of 16 July 2004 transferring the Code of Private International Law governs, in an international situation, the conditions of the effectiveness in Belgium of foreign judicial decisions and notarial acts in civil and commercial matters. A foreign judicial decision is neither recognized, nor declared executory, especially if the executory declaration of force is manifestly incompatible with public order and if the decision can still be the subject of an ordinary appeal. A foreign judicial decision is authenticated in Belgium by the observations made by the judge if it meets the necessary conditions for its authenticity according to the law of the State in which it was made.
4. ARBITRATION
4.1 ARBITRATION IN BELGIUM
The arbitration procedure is regulated by Clauses 1676 and following of the Belgian Legal Code.
Arbitration is a way of resolving disputes in which the parties agree to submit their disagreement to an arbitral tribunal composed of one to three people. On the basis of the request of the parties, the tribunal will render a decision, an arbitral award, which is obligatory. The award can be enforced if need be.
4.2 PROCEDURE
Any arbitration agreement must be in writing signed by the parties or the subject of other documents that commit the parties and express their will to resort to arbitration. The arbitration court must be composed of an uneven number of arbitrators. There can be a single arbitrator. The parties can, either in the arbitration agreement or thereafter, appoint the single arbitrator or arbitrators or call upon a third party to do so. The party that intends to bring the disagreement before the arbitration court must notify the opposing party of the fact. The parties determine in principle the rules of the arbitration procedure, as well as the arbitration venue. The arbitration court must give each party the possibility of asserting its rights and of proposing its means. The arbitration court rules after oral argument. The procedure is in writing if selected by the parties or insofar as they have abandoned the oral argument. The arbitration court can order provisional and conservatory measures at a party’s request. Unless the award is contrary to public order or the dispute is unsuitable for settlement by arbitration, the arbitral award has the authority of res judicata when it has been notified and when it can no longer be challenged before arbitrators. The arbitral award can be challenged before a Court of First Instance only with regard to cancellation and only in strictly enumerated cases (public order; abuse of power, etc).
4.3 APPEAL
An arbitral award can only be appealed if the parties have agreed this possibility in the arbitration agreement. Unless stipulated otherwise, the period for lodging an appeal is one month from the notification of the award.
5. ALTERNATIVE EXTRA-JUDICIAL DISPUTE RESOLUTION
5.1 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTIONS
For some years, the ADR such as mediation, conciliation, arbitration and out-of-court settlement have multiplied in the various fields of law. The choice between the various modes belongs in equal measure to the parties and to the judge. There is neither hierarchy nor prevalence between these various dispute resolution modes.
5.2 MEDIATION
5.2.1 General Procedure
Mediation is an alternative conflict resolution mode that supposes the intervention of a neutral and independent third party, the mediator, chosen by the parties in conventional mediation, appointed by the judge in judicial mediation. The role of this mediator is to help the parties to find, themselves, a negotiated solution to the dispute, all under the seal of absolute confidentiality. As soon as there is a dispute between parties and they have free disposal of their rights, recourse to mediation is possible. The matter is regulated by Clauses 1724 and following of the Legal Code. Each mediator, with the collaboration of the parties, is free to organise his or her intervention as he or she sees fit. One can distinguish three successive phases in any mediation: Preparatory phase enabling the context of the operations to be established; Analysis and listening phase; Decisional phase. 5.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mediation Advantages: Confidentiality, speed, cost, maintained relations, minimisation of the legal risk, and flexibility. Disadvantages: The right of access to a court, the principles of respect for the adversarial procedure and for the publication of the judgment are invoked against the ADR. Among the disadvantages, there is also the fear of the setting aside, on the one hand, of the rules of proof and, on the other, of those of material law (for example with regard to the protection of the economically weaker party). A lack of professionalism is also feared. For some, another disadvantage of this conflict resolution technique lies in the absence of any true executory title.
1.1 LEGAL SYSTEM
Belgium is a civil law country. Continental lawyers think in general terms of codes, while common law lawyers think in detailed terms of legal precedents.
1.2 SOURCES OF LAW
1.2.1 Common Law
Customary law consists of all the rules drawn from a community’s repeated practice, made mandatory by that same community.
1.2.2 Statute Law
The Law was for very many centuries an ancillary source of law. It became the principal source of law after the French revolution. The term “law” can be understood in the broad sense or in the restricted sense. In the broad sense it covers: - the Constitution ; - the directly applicable international law within the Belgian legal order ; - the Act in the restricted sense, the decree and the order ; - decree-laws ; - decrees and regulations.
1.2.3 Case Law
Case Law covers all of the rules of law that emerge from the judgements handed down by Belgian and international courts. It is most important to specify that a judge cannot violate the existing rules of law, nor create a new one. He or she must necessarily apply the law and nothing but the law. If this is not sufficiently clear, he or she must inevitably interpret it. If it appears poorly suited to the situation before him or her, he or she can with extreme prudence remedy any gaps in the law. It is the legislator alone who is qualified to update, amend, repeal or supplement a law. The role of case law is however far from negligible in our law: the solution adopted by one court can indeed convince other courts of the soundness of the interpretation. Judges tend to conform to the jurisprudence of the higher courts so that their decisions are not reformed on appeal or set aside by the Court of Cassation. A concern for safety moreover induces judges to adopt a similar solution in similar cases. There is not always unanimity between the various Belgian courts: jurisprudence is sometimes hesitant and controversy is not rare.
1.2.4 Doctrine
Doctrine covers all of the works written by legal scholars. These texts have no mandatory force but certain authors exert a major influence on the evolution of the law and judges are often influenced by their work when making their decisions.
1.2.5 Equity
Equity can be defined as the general feeling of justice shared by all the members of the social group.
A judge can for example grant an ex aequo et bono indemnity: he or she rules in accordance with equity.
1.3 LIMITATION PERIOD
Statute Limitation is the extinction of the right to bring an action because of the time elapsed. Actions relating to property rights are statute barred after thirty years, while the limitation period of personal actions (contracts and civil liability) can extend up to five, ten and twenty years from the day following the action’s operative event.
Criminal limitation is five years from the tortious act, period likely to be increased to ten years by the effect of legal interruption.
The limitation of common fiscal law is in principle from three to five years.
2. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE AND THE JUDICIAL FUNCTION
2.1 JURISDICTION
2.1.1 Belgian Courts
A Belgian judge has jurisdiction only within the limits of the territory that is assigned to him or her by law, except for cases where the law disposes otherwise.
Apart from cases where the law expressly determines the competent judge to hear the demand, this can, as the plaintiff chooses, be brought before the judge of the residence of the defendant or of one of the defendants, of the place in which the litigious obligations or one of them were born or in which they are, were or should be carried out, of the elected residence for the execution of the process; of the place where the bailiff has spoken to the defendant in person if the latter or, if applicable, none of the defendants is domiciled in Belgium or abroad.
2.1.2 Rest of the World
Subject to the application of international treaties, of European Union law or of provisions contained in particular laws, the Act of 16 July 2004 transferring the Private International Law Code governs, in an international situation, the competence of the Belgian courts, the determination of the applicable law and the conditions of the effectiveness in Belgium of foreign legal decisions and notarial acts in civil and commercial matters. Generally, the Belgian courts are competent if the defendant lives in Belgium or has his or her usual residence there when the demand is filed.
The Belgian courts are also competent to hear and determine any demand concerning the exploitation of a secondary establishment of a legal entity with neither registered office nor customary business address in Belgium, when this establishment is located in Belgium when the demand is filed.
When the parties, in a matter where they dispose freely of their rights by virtue of Belgian law, are validly agreed to hear and determine disagreements born or to be born on the occasion of a legal report on the competence of the Belgian courts or of one of them, these alone are competent.
3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
3.1 COURT SYSTEM
3.1.1 The Court of Cassation
There is a one Court of Cassation for the entire country. The Court of Cassation consists of three chambers: the first chamber hears and determines appeals in civil and commercial matters, the second hears appeals in repressive matters and the third hears appeals in corporate matters. Other cases are distributed between the chambers by the first president. Each chamber comprises a French-speaking section and a Dutch-speaking section and each section is composed of five counsel.
The Court of Cassation does not rule on substance, except when a minister has to be tried. The Court controls the proper application of the law by the courts and the tribunals. It appraises only the legality of the disputed decisions. If the Court of Cassation finds that there has been an infringement of a law or a violation of form, either substantial or prescribed on pain of nullity, it sets aside the decision and returns the case to another court of appeal or to another court where it will be retried.
3.1.2 The Court of Appeal
There are five Courts of Appeal in Belgium, which comprise three kinds of chambers: civil chambers, criminal chambers and youth chambers. In principle, the cases are allocated to chambers comprising three counsel. The Court of Appeal hears and determines appeals of the decisions handed down in the first jurisdiction by the court of first instance, by the Commercial Court or by the president of one of the tribunals, provided the value of the demand exceeds €1,860. This court also has a number of specific competences; in particular with regard to rehabilitation, certain tax procedures and certain decisions relating to elections.
3.1.3 The Labour Court
There are five Labour Courts in Belgium, which are divided into chambers consisting of a Labour Court Counsel, assisted by two or four Corporate Counsel, who must ensure the equal representation of employees and employers or the self-employed.
The Labour Court hears and determines the appeals of decisions handed down in the first jurisdiction by the Labour Tribunals and by the Presidents of the Labour Tribunals.
3.1.4. The Assize Court
Participant in the legal organisation, the Assize Court is an intermittent court. It sits only when, on the requisitions of the Attorney General, the First President of the Court of Appeal orders the opening of a session, in order to examine a matter of its competence in a case that is in the process of being tried. Assize Courts are held in each province and in the Brussels-Capital administrative district. The Assize Court is composed of two distinct colleges: the jury, formed by twelve Belgian citizens drawn by lot by the president of the court, and three judges from the legal order. Subject to the competence of military courts, the Assize Court is competent for all the criminal cases and for political and media offences, with the exception of violations of the media laws inspired by racism or xenophobia. It is a sovereign court, i.e. it rules in final jurisdiction, without appeal.
3.1.5 The District Court
There is one District Court per legal district (27). It is composed of the President of the Court of First Instance, the President of the Commercial Court and the President of the Labour Tribunal. It contains only one chamber.
The District Court hears and determines certain disputes with regard to competence. When the competence of the court dealing with the substance of a case is disputed, the plaintiff can require the case to be referred before the District Court, which will settle the competence issue. The defendant does not benefit from this possibility. When a judge questions his or her own competence as a matter of course, he or she is required to order its referral before the District Court.
3.1.6 The Court of First Instance
There is one Court of First Instance per legal district. The Magistrates Court is part of the Court of First Instance. In principle, the demands are allocated to a chamber with a single judge. There are exceptions, especially for appeals of judgments handed down by Justices of the Peace and Police Courts. The Court of First Instance hears and determines all appeals except those expressly allocated by law to another court. Moreover, the Court of First Instance sits as an appeal court for judgments handed down by Justices of the Peace, except for judgments in relation to demands where the amount is not more than €1,860, which cannot be appealed. In addition, certain disputes must be brought before this court even if the value of the demand is less than €1,860: for example, demands relating to personal conditions, family situations, underage matters, divorce, and so on.
3.1.7 The Seizure Judge
The Seizure Judge, in close co-operation with the Court of First Instance, settles all demands involving attachments and modes of execution.
3.1.8 The Commercial Court
There is one Commercial Court per legal district. It contains one or more chambers. Each is presided over by a career magistrate and is in addition composed of two non-professional judges, called Consular Judges. The Commercial Court hears and determines in the first jurisdiction disputes between merchants relating to acts considered by law to be commercial and which are not of the general competence of the Justice of the Peace. It is also competent in certain specific fields (for example, disputes with regard to bankruptcy, maritime and river matters, trading companies, and so on) or when the parties have recourse to a typically commercial instrument (for example, bill of exchange, promissory note), but again only if the disputed amount is more than €1,860. However, a non-merchant who brings a lawsuit against a merchant has the option, if he or she prefers, of bringing the case before a Commercial Court. On the other hand, a merchant cannot bring a suit against a non-merchant before a Commercial Court. Lastly, the Commercial Court hears and determines judgments handed down by the Justice of the Peace in commercial matters and with regard to bills of exchange.
3.1.9 The Labour Tribunal
There is one Labour Tribunal per legal district. It contains at least two chambers, which are presided over by a career magistrate and are in addition composed of two or four non-professional judges, called Corporate Judges. The Labour Tribunal hears and determines disputes that arise from employment and apprenticeship contracts, disputes with regard to social security, concerning in particular industrial accident and occupational illnesses, employer social security obligations, unemployment, compulsory sickness and disability insurance, retirement, annual holidays, existential safety, and so on.
3.1.10 The Police Court
There are 45 Police Courts, each pertaining to a legal district. This court includes one or more chambers, presided over by a single judge. The Police Court hears and determines any demand relating to the reparation of injury resulting from a traffic accident, whatever the amount. It also acts on criminal matters.
3.1.11 The Justice of the Peace
There are more than 200 Justices of the Peace. This court has no chamber: there is only one Justice of the Peace per legal canton.
The Justice of the Peace hears and determines all demands of which the amount does not exceed €1,860, except those expressly allocated by law to another court. In addition to this general competence, certain special responsibilities are allocated to the Justice of the Peace, whatever the amount of the demand (letting of buildings, joint ownership, constraints, alimony expropriations, acts of adoption, notorious deeds, and so on).
3.2 CIVIL PROCEDURE
3.2.1 Ordinary Action
The civil procedure in principle is public, written and oral and in general has a single phase, the trial. A trial begins in principle with a summons emanating from the plaintiff, who is the person who feels affected in his or her rights. The summons is the bailiff’s instrument by which the plaintiff summons his or her adversary to appear before a judge at a precise time.
The plaintiff and the defendant can also agree to bring their dispute before a judge by means of voluntary appearance, thus saving the expense of the summons.
In cases expressly envisaged by the law, the plaintiff can institute proceedings by a petition filed at the clerk's office of the court of competent jurisdiction. The judge is bound by the parties’ demands: “The trial is the parties’ affair” (operative principle). The submissions, documents in which the various parties present their arguments in fact and law, must be submitted to the other parties and to the court before the hearing. Often, submissions are presented orally and commented on at the time of the lawyer’s pleadings or by the party in person during argument before the court. The parties can decide at any moment, by mutual agreement or unilaterally as the case may be, to stop the trial. It can be a question of abandonment of proceedings or of action. At the end of the trial, the court closes the arguments, deliberates and sets the day for the pronouncement of the decision or refers the pronouncement to a later, unspecified date.
3.2.2 Interim Measures
The Presidents of the Courts of First Instance, the Commercial Courts and the Labour Tribunals can make provisional rulings in cases of which they recognize the urgency, in matters that fall within their jurisdiction (appointing receivers and experts, safeguarding rights, hearing witnesses, and so on).
3.2.3 Enforcement Proceedings
Judgments can in particular be enforced via seizure of furniture, seizure of fruits, garnishments (in the hands of a third party up to the amount that he or she owes to the debtor), seizure of ships and boats, and seizure of real estate.
3.2.4 Enforcement of Foreign Decisions
In addition to the rules resulting from European regulations relating to the recognition and execution of decisions as well as to the European executory title, the Act of 16 July 2004 transferring the Code of Private International Law governs, in an international situation, the conditions of the effectiveness in Belgium of foreign judicial decisions and notarial acts in civil and commercial matters. A foreign judicial decision is neither recognized, nor declared executory, especially if the executory declaration of force is manifestly incompatible with public order and if the decision can still be the subject of an ordinary appeal. A foreign judicial decision is authenticated in Belgium by the observations made by the judge if it meets the necessary conditions for its authenticity according to the law of the State in which it was made.
4. ARBITRATION
4.1 ARBITRATION IN BELGIUM
The arbitration procedure is regulated by Clauses 1676 and following of the Belgian Legal Code.
Arbitration is a way of resolving disputes in which the parties agree to submit their disagreement to an arbitral tribunal composed of one to three people. On the basis of the request of the parties, the tribunal will render a decision, an arbitral award, which is obligatory. The award can be enforced if need be.
4.2 PROCEDURE
Any arbitration agreement must be in writing signed by the parties or the subject of other documents that commit the parties and express their will to resort to arbitration. The arbitration court must be composed of an uneven number of arbitrators. There can be a single arbitrator. The parties can, either in the arbitration agreement or thereafter, appoint the single arbitrator or arbitrators or call upon a third party to do so. The party that intends to bring the disagreement before the arbitration court must notify the opposing party of the fact. The parties determine in principle the rules of the arbitration procedure, as well as the arbitration venue. The arbitration court must give each party the possibility of asserting its rights and of proposing its means. The arbitration court rules after oral argument. The procedure is in writing if selected by the parties or insofar as they have abandoned the oral argument. The arbitration court can order provisional and conservatory measures at a party’s request. Unless the award is contrary to public order or the dispute is unsuitable for settlement by arbitration, the arbitral award has the authority of res judicata when it has been notified and when it can no longer be challenged before arbitrators. The arbitral award can be challenged before a Court of First Instance only with regard to cancellation and only in strictly enumerated cases (public order; abuse of power, etc).
4.3 APPEAL
An arbitral award can only be appealed if the parties have agreed this possibility in the arbitration agreement. Unless stipulated otherwise, the period for lodging an appeal is one month from the notification of the award.
5. ALTERNATIVE EXTRA-JUDICIAL DISPUTE RESOLUTION
5.1 ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTIONS
For some years, the ADR such as mediation, conciliation, arbitration and out-of-court settlement have multiplied in the various fields of law. The choice between the various modes belongs in equal measure to the parties and to the judge. There is neither hierarchy nor prevalence between these various dispute resolution modes.
5.2 MEDIATION
5.2.1 General Procedure
Mediation is an alternative conflict resolution mode that supposes the intervention of a neutral and independent third party, the mediator, chosen by the parties in conventional mediation, appointed by the judge in judicial mediation. The role of this mediator is to help the parties to find, themselves, a negotiated solution to the dispute, all under the seal of absolute confidentiality. As soon as there is a dispute between parties and they have free disposal of their rights, recourse to mediation is possible. The matter is regulated by Clauses 1724 and following of the Legal Code. Each mediator, with the collaboration of the parties, is free to organise his or her intervention as he or she sees fit. One can distinguish three successive phases in any mediation: Preparatory phase enabling the context of the operations to be established; Analysis and listening phase; Decisional phase. 5.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mediation Advantages: Confidentiality, speed, cost, maintained relations, minimisation of the legal risk, and flexibility. Disadvantages: The right of access to a court, the principles of respect for the adversarial procedure and for the publication of the judgment are invoked against the ADR. Among the disadvantages, there is also the fear of the setting aside, on the one hand, of the rules of proof and, on the other, of those of material law (for example with regard to the protection of the economically weaker party). A lack of professionalism is also feared. For some, another disadvantage of this conflict resolution technique lies in the absence of any true executory title.
Protection of IP Belgium
1. TRADE MARKS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Benelux countries have unified their national trade mark legislation by the introduction of the uniform Benelux trade mark law which came into effect on 1 January 1971. This law required only slight adaptation to be brought into conformity with Directive 89/104/EEC, in particular by amending the protocols of 2 December 1992 and 11 December 2001.
1.2 REGISTERED TRADE MARKS
The following are regarded as trade marks: denominations, drawings, prints, seals, letters, figures, product or packaging forms and any other graphic representation that can be used to distinguish a company’s products. The right to a Benelux trade mark is acquired by the registration of the mark. To be valid, a mark must meet certain criteria. It must be: - distinctive i.e. it must enable a company’s products or services to distinguished from those of another company; and - available ie it must not infringe any earlier right such as another trade mark, a commercial name or copyright work. Trade mark registrations last for an initial period of 10 years and can be renewed for periods of 10 years thereafter.
1.3 UNREGISTERED TRADE MARKS
An unregistered trade mark has no protection. A company name is only used to indicate a company and can, in theory, be freely acquired provided that it does not create confusion with an existing denomination or commercial name and that it has not been filed as a trade mark by another entity. This denomination is protected by the common law of Articles 1382 and 1383 of the Civil Code, the Act of 14 July 1991 on trade practices and the Act of 26 June 2003 relating to abusive domain name registrations.
2. PATENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The main legislation in Belgium is the Act of 28 March 1984 on patents and its implementing decrees, amended in particular on 28 April 2005 with regard to the patentability of biotechnological inventions and the Act of 20 May 1975 on the protection of vegetal obtentions.
Protection of IP
Belgium
A patent enables its owner to prohibit third parties, during a certain period (a maximum of 6 years for a Belgian patent without a research report and a maximum of twenty years for a Belgian patent with a research report) from manufacturing, using or marketing the invention without their permission.
A patent may only be granted if an invention is:
- new in that it has not already been published or publicly used. An invention is deemed to be new if it is not included in the state of the art;
- not evident i.e. not obvious to a person skilled in the art; and
- suitable for industrial application.
The following are not regarded as inventions:
- scientific discoveries and theories and mathematical methods;
- aesthetic creations;
- plans, principles and methods in the exercise of mental activities in relation to economic activities including computer programmes; and
- the presentation of information.
2.2 DISTANCE SELLING AND E-COMMERCE
The Act of 14 July 1991 on trade practices, consumer information and protection regulates remote contracts.
The Act of 11 March 2003 (on certain legal aspects of information society services) governs e-commerce. It defines the fundamental concepts underlying electronic commerce, sets out obligations for information and transparency (in particular with regard to consumers), regulates advertising on the networks (for example as regards unsolicited advertising sent by e-mail), raises obstacles to entering into contracts electronically and determines the responsibility and obligations of intermediaries (website hosts, access suppliers).
The Act of 17 July 2000 relating to transactions carried out by means of instruments for transferring electronic funds also contributes to the advent of the information society, in particular of e-commerce.
The Act of 12 May 2003 concerning the legal protection of: (a) conditional access services; and (b) conditional access services relating to information society services, seeks to provide adequate legal protection against the marketing of illicit devices which could be used to circumvent any technical measure taken to protect the remuneration of a protected information society service.
2.3 DRAWING AND MODEL RIGHTS (IE REGISTERED DESIGNS)
Uniform Benelux law concerning drawings or models came into effect on 1 January 1975.
The appearance of a product or of part of a product is considered to be a drawing or a model. Features such as lines, contours, colours, shape, texture or materials of the product itself or of its ornamentation can be protected. A product can be any industrial or artistic item.
The exclusive Benelux right to a drawing or model is acquired by registration. The registration is for an initial 5 year period and can be renewed for successive 5 year periods up to a maximum of twenty-five years.
To be protected, the drawing or model must:
- be new as at the filing date i.e. no identical drawing or model can have been revealed to the public; and
- have individual character i.e. the overall impression that the drawing or model produces on the user must differ from that which is produced on such a user by any drawing or model that has been revealed to the public before the filing date.
2.4 CONFIDENTIALITY AND KNOW-HOW
Know-how relates to information which has a value in relation to the manufacturing or development process of a product or service. It can relate to an invention, area of expertise, information enabling a technique or a product to be improved or the implementation of an invention. Know-how can be protected by secrecy, which can be ensured by means of confidentiality agreements.
It should be noted that labour law prohibits employees from revealing the “business or trade secrets” of which they would become aware in the exercise of their professional activities.
2.5 COPYRIGHT
The law relating to copyright was amended by the Act of 22 May 2005 which implemented the European Directive 2001/29/EC of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and neighbouring rights in the information society.
A work is protected by copyright if it is original and has been recorded in a document or otherwise. Protection by copyright is automatic and does not depend on meeting certain criteria/formalities.
The author has the exploitation monopoly in relation to his rights. He can authorise or prohibit exploitation, except in exceptional cases. Copyright lasts for 70 years from the death of the author or of the last surviving co-author.
2.6 DESIGN RIGHT
An unregistered design right benefits from copyright protection providing it meets the conditions thereof.
3. PROTECTION OF IP RIGHTS
3.1 REGISTRARS
3.1.1 Patents
The IPO at the Ministry of Economic Affairs has jurisdiction to investigate Belgian patent applications.
Any person or entity, regardless of nationality, can apply for a Belgian or European patent. However, only persons with a legal entity having Belgian nationality or a place of residence or establishment in Belgium, can file an international patent application (IPA) with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO). At the time of the filing a patent application, a filing fee will have to be paid as well as other possible taxes (in respect of the novelty search, for example). In order to maintain a patent, fees will be payable from the beginning of the third year from the application filing date.
3.1.2 Trade Marks
The Benelux Trade Mark Office deals with registrations.
Applications must be made to the Benelux Trade Mark Office. The application file must contain:
- a filing form;
- a list of the products or services to which the application refers;
- a reproduction of the trade mark; and
- a search of the Trade Mark Register, if one had been carried out by the Benelux Trade Mark Office on the applicant’s request.
3.1.3 Registered Designs
The Benelux Drawing and Model Office deals with registration applications.
To file a drawing or a model, one has to complete the required forms and pay the prescribed taxes. The filing must set out the specific characteristics of the drawing or model.
The Benelux law in respect of models does not require an anteriority search in relation to substance and the Benelux Office only checks whether the filing satisfies the prescribed formalities.
Once all the conditions are met, the filing is recorded in the Benelux register and a registration certificate is sent to the applicant. The drawing or model is made public by its publication in the Office’s official monthly bulletin.
3.2 COURTS
Depending on the intellectual property right in issue and on the objective (e.g. suspension, damages, transfer of profits, publication of the judgement) either the Commercial Courts, ruling “as in summary procedure”, or the Court of First Instance will be competent rationae materiae to hear and determine any litigation in these matters.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Benelux countries have unified their national trade mark legislation by the introduction of the uniform Benelux trade mark law which came into effect on 1 January 1971. This law required only slight adaptation to be brought into conformity with Directive 89/104/EEC, in particular by amending the protocols of 2 December 1992 and 11 December 2001.
1.2 REGISTERED TRADE MARKS
The following are regarded as trade marks: denominations, drawings, prints, seals, letters, figures, product or packaging forms and any other graphic representation that can be used to distinguish a company’s products. The right to a Benelux trade mark is acquired by the registration of the mark. To be valid, a mark must meet certain criteria. It must be: - distinctive i.e. it must enable a company’s products or services to distinguished from those of another company; and - available ie it must not infringe any earlier right such as another trade mark, a commercial name or copyright work. Trade mark registrations last for an initial period of 10 years and can be renewed for periods of 10 years thereafter.
1.3 UNREGISTERED TRADE MARKS
An unregistered trade mark has no protection. A company name is only used to indicate a company and can, in theory, be freely acquired provided that it does not create confusion with an existing denomination or commercial name and that it has not been filed as a trade mark by another entity. This denomination is protected by the common law of Articles 1382 and 1383 of the Civil Code, the Act of 14 July 1991 on trade practices and the Act of 26 June 2003 relating to abusive domain name registrations.
2. PATENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The main legislation in Belgium is the Act of 28 March 1984 on patents and its implementing decrees, amended in particular on 28 April 2005 with regard to the patentability of biotechnological inventions and the Act of 20 May 1975 on the protection of vegetal obtentions.
Protection of IP
Belgium
A patent enables its owner to prohibit third parties, during a certain period (a maximum of 6 years for a Belgian patent without a research report and a maximum of twenty years for a Belgian patent with a research report) from manufacturing, using or marketing the invention without their permission.
A patent may only be granted if an invention is:
- new in that it has not already been published or publicly used. An invention is deemed to be new if it is not included in the state of the art;
- not evident i.e. not obvious to a person skilled in the art; and
- suitable for industrial application.
The following are not regarded as inventions:
- scientific discoveries and theories and mathematical methods;
- aesthetic creations;
- plans, principles and methods in the exercise of mental activities in relation to economic activities including computer programmes; and
- the presentation of information.
2.2 DISTANCE SELLING AND E-COMMERCE
The Act of 14 July 1991 on trade practices, consumer information and protection regulates remote contracts.
The Act of 11 March 2003 (on certain legal aspects of information society services) governs e-commerce. It defines the fundamental concepts underlying electronic commerce, sets out obligations for information and transparency (in particular with regard to consumers), regulates advertising on the networks (for example as regards unsolicited advertising sent by e-mail), raises obstacles to entering into contracts electronically and determines the responsibility and obligations of intermediaries (website hosts, access suppliers).
The Act of 17 July 2000 relating to transactions carried out by means of instruments for transferring electronic funds also contributes to the advent of the information society, in particular of e-commerce.
The Act of 12 May 2003 concerning the legal protection of: (a) conditional access services; and (b) conditional access services relating to information society services, seeks to provide adequate legal protection against the marketing of illicit devices which could be used to circumvent any technical measure taken to protect the remuneration of a protected information society service.
2.3 DRAWING AND MODEL RIGHTS (IE REGISTERED DESIGNS)
Uniform Benelux law concerning drawings or models came into effect on 1 January 1975.
The appearance of a product or of part of a product is considered to be a drawing or a model. Features such as lines, contours, colours, shape, texture or materials of the product itself or of its ornamentation can be protected. A product can be any industrial or artistic item.
The exclusive Benelux right to a drawing or model is acquired by registration. The registration is for an initial 5 year period and can be renewed for successive 5 year periods up to a maximum of twenty-five years.
To be protected, the drawing or model must:
- be new as at the filing date i.e. no identical drawing or model can have been revealed to the public; and
- have individual character i.e. the overall impression that the drawing or model produces on the user must differ from that which is produced on such a user by any drawing or model that has been revealed to the public before the filing date.
2.4 CONFIDENTIALITY AND KNOW-HOW
Know-how relates to information which has a value in relation to the manufacturing or development process of a product or service. It can relate to an invention, area of expertise, information enabling a technique or a product to be improved or the implementation of an invention. Know-how can be protected by secrecy, which can be ensured by means of confidentiality agreements.
It should be noted that labour law prohibits employees from revealing the “business or trade secrets” of which they would become aware in the exercise of their professional activities.
2.5 COPYRIGHT
The law relating to copyright was amended by the Act of 22 May 2005 which implemented the European Directive 2001/29/EC of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and neighbouring rights in the information society.
A work is protected by copyright if it is original and has been recorded in a document or otherwise. Protection by copyright is automatic and does not depend on meeting certain criteria/formalities.
The author has the exploitation monopoly in relation to his rights. He can authorise or prohibit exploitation, except in exceptional cases. Copyright lasts for 70 years from the death of the author or of the last surviving co-author.
2.6 DESIGN RIGHT
An unregistered design right benefits from copyright protection providing it meets the conditions thereof.
3. PROTECTION OF IP RIGHTS
3.1 REGISTRARS
3.1.1 Patents
The IPO at the Ministry of Economic Affairs has jurisdiction to investigate Belgian patent applications.
Any person or entity, regardless of nationality, can apply for a Belgian or European patent. However, only persons with a legal entity having Belgian nationality or a place of residence or establishment in Belgium, can file an international patent application (IPA) with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO). At the time of the filing a patent application, a filing fee will have to be paid as well as other possible taxes (in respect of the novelty search, for example). In order to maintain a patent, fees will be payable from the beginning of the third year from the application filing date.
3.1.2 Trade Marks
The Benelux Trade Mark Office deals with registrations.
Applications must be made to the Benelux Trade Mark Office. The application file must contain:
- a filing form;
- a list of the products or services to which the application refers;
- a reproduction of the trade mark; and
- a search of the Trade Mark Register, if one had been carried out by the Benelux Trade Mark Office on the applicant’s request.
3.1.3 Registered Designs
The Benelux Drawing and Model Office deals with registration applications.
To file a drawing or a model, one has to complete the required forms and pay the prescribed taxes. The filing must set out the specific characteristics of the drawing or model.
The Benelux law in respect of models does not require an anteriority search in relation to substance and the Benelux Office only checks whether the filing satisfies the prescribed formalities.
Once all the conditions are met, the filing is recorded in the Benelux register and a registration certificate is sent to the applicant. The drawing or model is made public by its publication in the Office’s official monthly bulletin.
3.2 COURTS
Depending on the intellectual property right in issue and on the objective (e.g. suspension, damages, transfer of profits, publication of the judgement) either the Commercial Courts, ruling “as in summary procedure”, or the Court of First Instance will be competent rationae materiae to hear and determine any litigation in these matters.
Corporate Aspects of Trading and Investing Belgium
1. INTRODUCTION
Belgian company law recognises the commercial company in various forms. The most common forms commercial companies can take are: the Joint Stock Company (société anonyme/naamlooze vennootschap), the private limited liability company (société privée à responsabilité limitée/besloten vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid), the Co-operative company (société coopérative/coöperatieve vennootschap), the European Economic Interest Grouping (groupement européen d’intérêt économique/economisch samenwerkingsverband). These companies may open a Branch or create a subsidiary. Businesses operating in more than one member state of the European Union can now incorporate as just the one pan-European company, or Societas Europaea (société européenne/europese vennootschap), rather than operating as a network of nationally based subsidiaries. In Belgium, commercial distribution law covers in particular the franchise contract, the agency contract and the dealership contract.
2. METHODS OF MARKET ENTRY IN BELGIUM
2.1 DISTRIBUTION AND AGENCY
Franchising (franchise/franchising) is a method of collaboration between two independent partners, according to which one of them, called the franchiser, places at the disposal of the other, the franchisee, in return for remuneration and under well-defined conditions, the right to exploit a marketing formula or production system that he has developed and which has been tried and tested. The Belgian Act of 19 December 2005 protects the franchisee in the pre-contractual phase. On the otherhand, common law applies for all other phases of contracts of this kind. The sales agency contract (contrat d’agence/handelsagentuurovereenkomst) is regulated by the Act of 13 April 1995. The sales agency contract is a contract by which one of the parties, the sales agent, is permanently charged by the other party, the principal, in return for remuneration but without being subject to the latter’s authority, for the negotiation and possibly the conclusion of affairs in the name and on behalf of the principal. Sales agents organise their activities as they see fit and spend their time as they wish. The Act of 13 April 1995 envisages, under certain conditions, the respect of a predetermined period of notice and the granting of indemnities, customer-related in particular, in the event of cancellation of the contract. Belgium has adopted some specific legislation with regard to the cancellation of the exclusive open-ended dealership contract (contrat de concession de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée/onbepaalde tijd verleende concessies van alleenverkoop).The terms and conditions for cancelling such a contract are strictly regulated by the Belgian Act of 27 July 1961, which envisages, in certain conditions, the granting of a period of notice and indemnities, customer-related in particular, to the dealer.
2.2 BRANCH
The branch (succursale/filiaal) is subject to strict formalities (registration with the Company Crossroads Bank, appointment of Belgian representatives, publication of the headquarters’ Articles of Association, and so on) and must in particular annually communicate and publish the financial data, sometimes confidential, relating to the foreign headquarters.
As the branch does not have its own legal personality, its headquarters will be liable for its activities. It is sometimes simpler and more effective to constitute a new subsidiary company (filiale/dochtermaatschappij), with its own legal personality.
2.3 PARTNERSHIPS
The General Partnership (société en nom collectif/vennootschap onder firma) is formed when two or more people put something in common, in order to carry on one or more given activities and with the aim of obtaining direct or indirect profit from their assets for the partners, in principle they form a company. Any collaboration between people satisfying this definition can be described as a partnership, which does not have a legal personality.
The partners of such a company are committed towards third parties either by virile shares, when the business purpose is civil, or jointly, when this purpose is commercial. Exemption from this liability is only possible when expressly stipulated in an instrument signed with third parties.
The Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) (société en commandite simple/gewone commanditaire vennootschap) is that “which is formed by one or more liable and interdependent associates, who are called general partners, and one or more simple sponsor associates, who are called limited partners”. The general partners have joint and unlimited liability for all of the company’s debts, whereas the limited partners have no liability beyond their individual investments. The limited partners’ shares are personal and inalienable.
The Limited Partnership With Share Capital (LPSC) (société en commandite par actions/commanditaire vennootschap op aandelen) is that which is formed by one or more liable and interdependent associates, who are called general partners, with one or more limited partners who have the capacity of associates, and who are liable only up to a predetermined stake. The LPSC therefore comprises two groups of associates: the general partners have joint and unlimited liability for all the company’s debts, and the limited partners have no liability beyond their individual contributions.
The limited partners own registered or bearer shares.
The situation of the general partners, for its part, is the same as that of their counterparts in the LLP.
The Co-Operative Company (CC) (société cooperative/coöperatieve vennootschap) is that which is composed of associates whose contributions are variable and whose shares cannot be transferred to third parties. This form of company has two essential characteristics: the variability of the associates and contributions, and the strictly limited transferability of the ownership rights.
In terms of capital, distinction is made between the limited liability co-operative company (LLCC) (société coopérative à responsabilité limitée/coöperatieve vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid) and that with unlimited liability (ULCC) (société cooperative à responsabilité illimitée/coöperatieve vennootschap met niet beperkte aansprakelijkheid). For the latter, no starting capital is necessary but it should be known that in return, the associates are personally and jointly liable for corporate debts to the extent of their entire assets.
2.4 BELGIAN LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES
The limited liability co-operative company (LLCC) (société coopérative à responsabilité limitée/coöperatieve vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid) is similar to the co-operative company with unlimited liability (ULCC) except that the liability of the former’s associates is limited to their contributions.
The Joint Stock Company (JSC) (société anonyme/naamlooze vennootschap) is that which is formed by a number of people who commit themselves to paying a predetermined stake and who are liable for the debts of the company pro rata to their contributions. The associates’ liability is therefore limited to the amount of their stakes.
The private limited liability company (²LLC) (société privée à responsabilité limitée/besloten vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid) is that which is incorporated by one or more people who commit only their contributions and where the ownership rights are transmissible only under certain conditions. A person can be a sole associate in only one limited company; otherwise he or she in principle becomes the joint and several guarantor of all the commitments of the other limited companies until the particular moment when a new associate is allowed into those other limited companies.
The Non-Profit-Making Association (NPMA) (association sans but lucratif/vereniging zonder winstoogmerk) is a grouping of persons or entities pursuing a disinterested objective. The NPMA can procure no material gain for its members. This prohibition means that the members of a non-profit-making association cannot receive the profits that might result from the association’s activities. This is a major difference compared to commercial companies, the vocation of which is to enrich its shareholders. Contrary to the Partnership, the NPMA has its own legal personality independent of that of its members. The legal personality means that the NPMA has rights and obligations. The members have limited liability and do not in principle commit their personal wealth for the association’s commitments.
3. FORMATION OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
The basic conditions for the incorporation of an LLCC are as follows (and also apply for a ULCC):
- a minimum capital of €18,550;
- the total subscription of the capital;
- a minimum amount of €6,250 paid-up;
- 25 % of each share being paid-up; and
- a minimum of 3 associates.
For an LLCC, a notarial act is necessary (whereas for the ULCC, the memorandum of association can be under private seal, unless one of the associates contributes a building).
For the JSC, the basic conditions are the following:
- a minimum capital of €61,500;
- the total subscription of the capital;
- the minimum capital being totally paid-up;
- 25 % of each share being paid-up; and
- a minimum of 2 shareholders.
A notarial act is necessary, and the shares are either bearer or registered. A bill of 01 August 2005 however envisages the suppression of bearer shares as from January 2008.
The basic conditions for the incorporation of a LLC are the following:
- a minimum capital of €18,550;
- the total subscription of the capital;
- a minimum amount of €6,200 being paid-up. For a sole shareholder limited company, €12,400 of the capital must be paid-up; and
- 20 % of each share being paid-up.
A notarial act is necessary, and the shares are registered.
Unlike other legal forms such as the JSC or the LLC, the constitution of an NPMA does not require any starting capital. The NPMA can be incorporated by simple deed under private seal.
4. MANAGEMENT OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
4.1 THE CO-OPERATIVE COMPANY
Associates
The rules pertaining to the admission, resignation and exclusion of the associates are laid down by the Articles of Association. These also indicate the body authorised to resolve such questions: the general meeting, the board of directors or another body. In the absence of statutory provisions, the decision belongs at the general meeting, without any possible appeal.
General Meeting
The greatest freedom is left to the founders with regard to the organisation of the powers and workings of the General Meeting. The law indeed specifies that the memorandum of association must indicate the rights of the associates, the calling of the meeting, the majority necessary for the validity of the deliberations and the voting mode. For the remainder, the rules of the Joint Stock Company apply.
Administration
Once again, the greatest latitude is left to the founders on this point. They are indeed allowed to entrust the administration of the Co-operative to a manager or to one or more directors. In the event of silence on the question in the Articles of Association, a director appointed by the General Meeting will manage the company.
The Articles of Association normally determine the powers of the manager or the directors. If they are not evoked therein, the director is invested with full management power - he or she will therefore be able to accomplish all acts necessary or useful for the achievement of the company’s purpose.
Auditors
The Auditor has the role of controlling the financial situation, the annual accounts and the regularity of the operations to be noted in the accounts according to the legislation on commercial companies and the Articles of Association. The appointment of an auditor is not necessary for small companies.
4.2 THE JOINT STOCK COMPANY
General Meeting
The General Meeting assembles all of the company’s associates or shareholders. It has the most extended powers for all acts that are of interest to the company.
Certain acts must obligatorily be submitted to the General Meeting of the associates or shareholders:
- approval of the annual accounts;
- amendment of the Articles of Association; and
- appointment, revocation and replacement of directors and managers.
Board of Directors
The Joint Stock Company is represented by a Board of Directors appointed at the time of the formation of the company or in the course of a General Meeting.
The Board of Directors of a JSC must contain at least three members (there is no maximum). The number of directors can however exceptionally be limited to two when the company consists of only two shareholders.
The Board of Directors has all the powers necessary for managing and representing the company. It can indeed accomplish all acts of management except for those that the law reserves for the General Meeting. Moreover, it represents the company for all deeds and in judicial matters. The Joint Stock Company’s Board of Directors can delegate part of its powers to a Managing Director (if the delegate him or herself is a director) or to a General Manager (if the delegate is a third party). The directors are responsible to the company for all the acts that they accomplish while in office and for any faults that they may commit. It is however the company that will have to assume all the consequences of those faults since the directors act on its behalf. If the General Meeting wishes to sanction a director, it can revoke him or her and, if necessary, have him or her replaced. In the event of the company’s insolvency, the Official Receiver can personally prosecute the directors in the event of a specific serious fault.
Auditors
An Auditor for a JSC has the same role and responsibilities which have been described above in relation to the LLCC.
4.3 THE LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
General Meeting
The rules expounded for the JSC apply.
Management
The LLC is represented by one or more Managers appointed at the time of the formation of the company or on the occasion of a General Meeting.
Each Manager can accomplish all acts of management necessary of useful for achieving the company’s purpose except for those that the law reserves for the General Meeting. Each Manager represents the company for all deeds and in judicial matters.
Auditors
An Auditor for an LLC has the same role and responsibilities which have been described above in relation to the LLCC
5. OFFICERS’ LIABILITY OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
5.1 FOUNDER LIABILITY
The founders can be held jointly liable for any irregularities committed at the time of the foundation of the company (constitution of the capital, invalid incorporation, undertakings contracted by incompetents).
5.2 DIRECTOR AND MANAGER LIABILITY
For as long as the directors and managers fulfil their assignments normally, they assume no personal liability. They represent the company and the legal entity alone is bound by their acts. The same is not the case, however, when directors commit faults in the performance of their duties.
Management Faults
In an LLCC, a JSC or an LLC, the directors are liable with respect to the company for their management faults, i.e. when they fail to discharge their directorships correctly.
Infringement of Company Law or Articles of Association
The directors and managers can also have to answer with regard to the company and to third parties for an infringement of the Companies Code, the accountancy laws or the Articles of Association.This liability is in principle a joint liability.
Insolvency
In the event of insolvency, if the directors or managers have committed a specific serious fault, and insofar as this fault has contributed to the insolvency, they can be held personally liable for all or part of the company’s debts to the extent that the assets allow.
Tortious Act
Ordinary criminal and quasi-criminal liability is based on Clauses 1382 and 1383 of the Belgian Civil Code.
Conflict of Interest
A director’s liability can also be engaged if he or she has taken part in a board deliberation concerning an operation in which it had an interest different from that of the company, and insofar as it would have been prejudicial to the company or to a third party.
In the event of a new issue of capital, the liability of the directors or managers is the same as that of the founders.
Shareholder Liability
In an LLCC, a JSC or an LLC, the shareholders do not have to answer for the debts of the company. Their liability is limited to their contributions.
6. TAXATION OF PROFITS
Companies, associations and organisations with legal personality are subject to Belgian tax on corporate profits if they are engaged in a commercial or profit-making activity and if their statutory head office, main establishment or effective management office is located in Belgium.
In principle, foreign entities are subject to Belgian corporation tax if they exercise commercial activities in Belgium via a branch (a permanent establishment).
Since the 2004 tax year, the corporation tax rate has been 33.99 %. A reduced rate of 24.98 % can be applied to Small and Medium Enterprises (SME), under certain conditions.
In general, the tax base for corporation tax is the world income minus the authorised deductions. All the income generated by a company is in principle considered to be the corporate income. Similarly, all the costs created by a company are in principle considered to be the corporate costs. In principle, the expenditure incurred or created by the company for the taxable period for the purpose of obtaining or ensuring the company’s taxable income is regarded as tax-deductible.
The distribution of dividends in Belgium is an expensive business. Taking into account the corporation tax and the withholding tax of 25 % retained on the distribution of dividends, the total rate of tax applied more or less represents the marginal rate of personal income tax. It is nevertheless possible, under certain conditions, to benefit from a preferential overall tax rate by reducing the tax on the dividend allocation.
When a company owns several subsidiaries, the officers of the parent company are required to consolidate their accounts, in order to present the economic reality of the whole.
Belgian company law recognises the commercial company in various forms. The most common forms commercial companies can take are: the Joint Stock Company (société anonyme/naamlooze vennootschap), the private limited liability company (société privée à responsabilité limitée/besloten vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid), the Co-operative company (société coopérative/coöperatieve vennootschap), the European Economic Interest Grouping (groupement européen d’intérêt économique/economisch samenwerkingsverband). These companies may open a Branch or create a subsidiary. Businesses operating in more than one member state of the European Union can now incorporate as just the one pan-European company, or Societas Europaea (société européenne/europese vennootschap), rather than operating as a network of nationally based subsidiaries. In Belgium, commercial distribution law covers in particular the franchise contract, the agency contract and the dealership contract.
2. METHODS OF MARKET ENTRY IN BELGIUM
2.1 DISTRIBUTION AND AGENCY
Franchising (franchise/franchising) is a method of collaboration between two independent partners, according to which one of them, called the franchiser, places at the disposal of the other, the franchisee, in return for remuneration and under well-defined conditions, the right to exploit a marketing formula or production system that he has developed and which has been tried and tested. The Belgian Act of 19 December 2005 protects the franchisee in the pre-contractual phase. On the otherhand, common law applies for all other phases of contracts of this kind. The sales agency contract (contrat d’agence/handelsagentuurovereenkomst) is regulated by the Act of 13 April 1995. The sales agency contract is a contract by which one of the parties, the sales agent, is permanently charged by the other party, the principal, in return for remuneration but without being subject to the latter’s authority, for the negotiation and possibly the conclusion of affairs in the name and on behalf of the principal. Sales agents organise their activities as they see fit and spend their time as they wish. The Act of 13 April 1995 envisages, under certain conditions, the respect of a predetermined period of notice and the granting of indemnities, customer-related in particular, in the event of cancellation of the contract. Belgium has adopted some specific legislation with regard to the cancellation of the exclusive open-ended dealership contract (contrat de concession de vente exclusive à durée indéterminée/onbepaalde tijd verleende concessies van alleenverkoop).The terms and conditions for cancelling such a contract are strictly regulated by the Belgian Act of 27 July 1961, which envisages, in certain conditions, the granting of a period of notice and indemnities, customer-related in particular, to the dealer.
2.2 BRANCH
The branch (succursale/filiaal) is subject to strict formalities (registration with the Company Crossroads Bank, appointment of Belgian representatives, publication of the headquarters’ Articles of Association, and so on) and must in particular annually communicate and publish the financial data, sometimes confidential, relating to the foreign headquarters.
As the branch does not have its own legal personality, its headquarters will be liable for its activities. It is sometimes simpler and more effective to constitute a new subsidiary company (filiale/dochtermaatschappij), with its own legal personality.
2.3 PARTNERSHIPS
The General Partnership (société en nom collectif/vennootschap onder firma) is formed when two or more people put something in common, in order to carry on one or more given activities and with the aim of obtaining direct or indirect profit from their assets for the partners, in principle they form a company. Any collaboration between people satisfying this definition can be described as a partnership, which does not have a legal personality.
The partners of such a company are committed towards third parties either by virile shares, when the business purpose is civil, or jointly, when this purpose is commercial. Exemption from this liability is only possible when expressly stipulated in an instrument signed with third parties.
The Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) (société en commandite simple/gewone commanditaire vennootschap) is that “which is formed by one or more liable and interdependent associates, who are called general partners, and one or more simple sponsor associates, who are called limited partners”. The general partners have joint and unlimited liability for all of the company’s debts, whereas the limited partners have no liability beyond their individual investments. The limited partners’ shares are personal and inalienable.
The Limited Partnership With Share Capital (LPSC) (société en commandite par actions/commanditaire vennootschap op aandelen) is that which is formed by one or more liable and interdependent associates, who are called general partners, with one or more limited partners who have the capacity of associates, and who are liable only up to a predetermined stake. The LPSC therefore comprises two groups of associates: the general partners have joint and unlimited liability for all the company’s debts, and the limited partners have no liability beyond their individual contributions.
The limited partners own registered or bearer shares.
The situation of the general partners, for its part, is the same as that of their counterparts in the LLP.
The Co-Operative Company (CC) (société cooperative/coöperatieve vennootschap) is that which is composed of associates whose contributions are variable and whose shares cannot be transferred to third parties. This form of company has two essential characteristics: the variability of the associates and contributions, and the strictly limited transferability of the ownership rights.
In terms of capital, distinction is made between the limited liability co-operative company (LLCC) (société coopérative à responsabilité limitée/coöperatieve vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid) and that with unlimited liability (ULCC) (société cooperative à responsabilité illimitée/coöperatieve vennootschap met niet beperkte aansprakelijkheid). For the latter, no starting capital is necessary but it should be known that in return, the associates are personally and jointly liable for corporate debts to the extent of their entire assets.
2.4 BELGIAN LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES
The limited liability co-operative company (LLCC) (société coopérative à responsabilité limitée/coöperatieve vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid) is similar to the co-operative company with unlimited liability (ULCC) except that the liability of the former’s associates is limited to their contributions.
The Joint Stock Company (JSC) (société anonyme/naamlooze vennootschap) is that which is formed by a number of people who commit themselves to paying a predetermined stake and who are liable for the debts of the company pro rata to their contributions. The associates’ liability is therefore limited to the amount of their stakes.
The private limited liability company (²LLC) (société privée à responsabilité limitée/besloten vennootschap met beperkte aansprakelijkheid) is that which is incorporated by one or more people who commit only their contributions and where the ownership rights are transmissible only under certain conditions. A person can be a sole associate in only one limited company; otherwise he or she in principle becomes the joint and several guarantor of all the commitments of the other limited companies until the particular moment when a new associate is allowed into those other limited companies.
The Non-Profit-Making Association (NPMA) (association sans but lucratif/vereniging zonder winstoogmerk) is a grouping of persons or entities pursuing a disinterested objective. The NPMA can procure no material gain for its members. This prohibition means that the members of a non-profit-making association cannot receive the profits that might result from the association’s activities. This is a major difference compared to commercial companies, the vocation of which is to enrich its shareholders. Contrary to the Partnership, the NPMA has its own legal personality independent of that of its members. The legal personality means that the NPMA has rights and obligations. The members have limited liability and do not in principle commit their personal wealth for the association’s commitments.
3. FORMATION OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
The basic conditions for the incorporation of an LLCC are as follows (and also apply for a ULCC):
- a minimum capital of €18,550;
- the total subscription of the capital;
- a minimum amount of €6,250 paid-up;
- 25 % of each share being paid-up; and
- a minimum of 3 associates.
For an LLCC, a notarial act is necessary (whereas for the ULCC, the memorandum of association can be under private seal, unless one of the associates contributes a building).
For the JSC, the basic conditions are the following:
- a minimum capital of €61,500;
- the total subscription of the capital;
- the minimum capital being totally paid-up;
- 25 % of each share being paid-up; and
- a minimum of 2 shareholders.
A notarial act is necessary, and the shares are either bearer or registered. A bill of 01 August 2005 however envisages the suppression of bearer shares as from January 2008.
The basic conditions for the incorporation of a LLC are the following:
- a minimum capital of €18,550;
- the total subscription of the capital;
- a minimum amount of €6,200 being paid-up. For a sole shareholder limited company, €12,400 of the capital must be paid-up; and
- 20 % of each share being paid-up.
A notarial act is necessary, and the shares are registered.
Unlike other legal forms such as the JSC or the LLC, the constitution of an NPMA does not require any starting capital. The NPMA can be incorporated by simple deed under private seal.
4. MANAGEMENT OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
4.1 THE CO-OPERATIVE COMPANY
Associates
The rules pertaining to the admission, resignation and exclusion of the associates are laid down by the Articles of Association. These also indicate the body authorised to resolve such questions: the general meeting, the board of directors or another body. In the absence of statutory provisions, the decision belongs at the general meeting, without any possible appeal.
General Meeting
The greatest freedom is left to the founders with regard to the organisation of the powers and workings of the General Meeting. The law indeed specifies that the memorandum of association must indicate the rights of the associates, the calling of the meeting, the majority necessary for the validity of the deliberations and the voting mode. For the remainder, the rules of the Joint Stock Company apply.
Administration
Once again, the greatest latitude is left to the founders on this point. They are indeed allowed to entrust the administration of the Co-operative to a manager or to one or more directors. In the event of silence on the question in the Articles of Association, a director appointed by the General Meeting will manage the company.
The Articles of Association normally determine the powers of the manager or the directors. If they are not evoked therein, the director is invested with full management power - he or she will therefore be able to accomplish all acts necessary or useful for the achievement of the company’s purpose.
Auditors
The Auditor has the role of controlling the financial situation, the annual accounts and the regularity of the operations to be noted in the accounts according to the legislation on commercial companies and the Articles of Association. The appointment of an auditor is not necessary for small companies.
4.2 THE JOINT STOCK COMPANY
General Meeting
The General Meeting assembles all of the company’s associates or shareholders. It has the most extended powers for all acts that are of interest to the company.
Certain acts must obligatorily be submitted to the General Meeting of the associates or shareholders:
- approval of the annual accounts;
- amendment of the Articles of Association; and
- appointment, revocation and replacement of directors and managers.
Board of Directors
The Joint Stock Company is represented by a Board of Directors appointed at the time of the formation of the company or in the course of a General Meeting.
The Board of Directors of a JSC must contain at least three members (there is no maximum). The number of directors can however exceptionally be limited to two when the company consists of only two shareholders.
The Board of Directors has all the powers necessary for managing and representing the company. It can indeed accomplish all acts of management except for those that the law reserves for the General Meeting. Moreover, it represents the company for all deeds and in judicial matters. The Joint Stock Company’s Board of Directors can delegate part of its powers to a Managing Director (if the delegate him or herself is a director) or to a General Manager (if the delegate is a third party). The directors are responsible to the company for all the acts that they accomplish while in office and for any faults that they may commit. It is however the company that will have to assume all the consequences of those faults since the directors act on its behalf. If the General Meeting wishes to sanction a director, it can revoke him or her and, if necessary, have him or her replaced. In the event of the company’s insolvency, the Official Receiver can personally prosecute the directors in the event of a specific serious fault.
Auditors
An Auditor for a JSC has the same role and responsibilities which have been described above in relation to the LLCC.
4.3 THE LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
General Meeting
The rules expounded for the JSC apply.
Management
The LLC is represented by one or more Managers appointed at the time of the formation of the company or on the occasion of a General Meeting.
Each Manager can accomplish all acts of management necessary of useful for achieving the company’s purpose except for those that the law reserves for the General Meeting. Each Manager represents the company for all deeds and in judicial matters.
Auditors
An Auditor for an LLC has the same role and responsibilities which have been described above in relation to the LLCC
5. OFFICERS’ LIABILITY OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY
5.1 FOUNDER LIABILITY
The founders can be held jointly liable for any irregularities committed at the time of the foundation of the company (constitution of the capital, invalid incorporation, undertakings contracted by incompetents).
5.2 DIRECTOR AND MANAGER LIABILITY
For as long as the directors and managers fulfil their assignments normally, they assume no personal liability. They represent the company and the legal entity alone is bound by their acts. The same is not the case, however, when directors commit faults in the performance of their duties.
Management Faults
In an LLCC, a JSC or an LLC, the directors are liable with respect to the company for their management faults, i.e. when they fail to discharge their directorships correctly.
Infringement of Company Law or Articles of Association
The directors and managers can also have to answer with regard to the company and to third parties for an infringement of the Companies Code, the accountancy laws or the Articles of Association.This liability is in principle a joint liability.
Insolvency
In the event of insolvency, if the directors or managers have committed a specific serious fault, and insofar as this fault has contributed to the insolvency, they can be held personally liable for all or part of the company’s debts to the extent that the assets allow.
Tortious Act
Ordinary criminal and quasi-criminal liability is based on Clauses 1382 and 1383 of the Belgian Civil Code.
Conflict of Interest
A director’s liability can also be engaged if he or she has taken part in a board deliberation concerning an operation in which it had an interest different from that of the company, and insofar as it would have been prejudicial to the company or to a third party.
In the event of a new issue of capital, the liability of the directors or managers is the same as that of the founders.
Shareholder Liability
In an LLCC, a JSC or an LLC, the shareholders do not have to answer for the debts of the company. Their liability is limited to their contributions.
6. TAXATION OF PROFITS
Companies, associations and organisations with legal personality are subject to Belgian tax on corporate profits if they are engaged in a commercial or profit-making activity and if their statutory head office, main establishment or effective management office is located in Belgium.
In principle, foreign entities are subject to Belgian corporation tax if they exercise commercial activities in Belgium via a branch (a permanent establishment).
Since the 2004 tax year, the corporation tax rate has been 33.99 %. A reduced rate of 24.98 % can be applied to Small and Medium Enterprises (SME), under certain conditions.
In general, the tax base for corporation tax is the world income minus the authorised deductions. All the income generated by a company is in principle considered to be the corporate income. Similarly, all the costs created by a company are in principle considered to be the corporate costs. In principle, the expenditure incurred or created by the company for the taxable period for the purpose of obtaining or ensuring the company’s taxable income is regarded as tax-deductible.
The distribution of dividends in Belgium is an expensive business. Taking into account the corporation tax and the withholding tax of 25 % retained on the distribution of dividends, the total rate of tax applied more or less represents the marginal rate of personal income tax. It is nevertheless possible, under certain conditions, to benefit from a preferential overall tax rate by reducing the tax on the dividend allocation.
When a company owns several subsidiaries, the officers of the parent company are required to consolidate their accounts, in order to present the economic reality of the whole.
SEGUROS HÍPICOS: ¿TIENES EL TUYO?
I. Tus propios daños : el seguro para jinetes y amazonas aficionados o profesionales
Según la Ley 10/1990, de 15 de octubre, del Deporte, la asistencia sanitaria derivada de la práctica deportiva general del ciudadano constituye una prestación ordinaria del régimen de aseguramiento sanitario del sector público que le corresponda, y asimismo de los seguros generales de asistencia sanitaria prestados por entidades privadas.
Esto significa que, cualquier caballo que montes (que sea tuyo, alquilado o prestado), si te ocurre un accidente montando, aunque no tengas ningun seguro específico, no tendrás en principio que pagar nada por la curación de tus daños corporales y por la rehabilitación puesto que se aplicará la asistencia sanitaria ordinaria (atención primaria integral de la salud, incluyendo las acciones curativas y rehabilitadoras y asistencia sanitaria especializada, que incluye la asistencia domiciliaria, la hospitalización y la rehabilitación).
Con independencia de otros aseguramientos especiales que puedan establecerse, todos los deportistas federados que participen en competiciones oficiales de ámbito estatal deberán estar en posesión de un seguro obligatorio que cubra los riesgos para la salud derivados de la práctica de la modalidad deportiva correspondiente.
Este seguro, lo tienes con tu licencia federativa de jinete.
Las prestaciones mínimas a cubrir por el seguro obligatorio para deportistas federados son las que constan en el anexo al Real Decreto 849/1993, de 4 de junio y son casi las mismas que las prestaciones de la asistencia sanitaria ordinaria.
En estos seguros obligatorios que cubren los daños que te haces tú, independientemente normalmente de que sea culpa tuya o no (de momento que no lo hagas adrede), no suelen ser incluidos los daños materiales, económicos o indirectos (rompiste tu Blackberry y tus estribos cayendo, perdiste un año de estudios por no poder asistir a los exámenes, daño moral, perdidas económicas por no poder trabajar (días de incapacidad…)).
En otros términos, no tienes mucho más garantías con la licencia federativa que con el aseguramiento sanitario público, el seguro obligatorio justificándose sobre todo por solidaridad con la seguridad social por el hecho de practicar actividades de riesgo.
El seguro de la licencia federativa de jinete cubre lo mínimo (tus propias lesiones corporales en caso de accidente) y no incluye los daños materiales, indirectos, económicos… Si quieres tener una cobertura más amplia, tendrías que contratar un seguro complementario para jinetes y amazonas, que incluya daños materiales, pérdidas económicas… y/o reclamación de daños propios (para cuando un tercero es en realidad el responsable de tu perjuicio).
II. Los daños de terceros: responsabilidad civil
II.1. Responsabilidad civil del dueño (propietario)
Conforme al Artículo 1905 del Código Civil, “el poseedor de un animal, o el que se sirve de él, es responsable de los perjuicios que causare, aunque se le escape o extravíe. Sólo cesará esta responsabilidad en el caso de que el daño proviniera de fuerza mayor o de culpa del que lo hubiese sufrido”.
Se trata de una responsabilidad objetiva por el único hecho de tener un animal que pueda ocasionar un daño (sin que haya culpa o negligencia ninguna por parte del dueño).
Por eso es conveniente tener un seguro de responsabilidad civil, el cual cubre la responsabilidad del propietario frente a los daños, tanto materiales como personales, que su caballo pueda ocasionar tanto montado como en libertad a terceros.
Es muy importante tenerlo, no solo para los daños materiales de los terceros pero también sus daños corporales porque aunque la seguridad social prevea su intervención “gratuita” para el tercero lesionado (ver punto I), conforme al artículo 83 de la Ley General de Sanidad, las Administraciones públicas que hubieran atendido sanitariamente a los usuarios cuando hay un tercero obligado al pago, tendrán derecho a reclamar del tercero responsable el coste de los servicios prestados.
El seguro de responsabilidad civil de los propietarios de caballos tendría que ser obligatorio en las Hípicas donde numerosos caballos codean con otros caballos, jinetes y material de valor.
II.2. Responsabilidad civil del poseedor (el que monta el caballo)
La jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo (T.S. nº 198/2006 , de 8 de Marzo de 2006; T.S. de 16-X-98 ), viene diciendo, respecto a la aplicación del art. 1905 C.c (ver punto II.1) cuando el caballo está montado, que el poseedor del animal, responsable del daño a terceros, no es el propietario del mismo, sino el que efectivamente lo monta, es decir, lo sería el propio jinete.
En otros terminos, si montas gratuitamente mi caballo, que este caballo causa un daño a un tercero (habias decidido ir a tomarte una cerveza en el camping de al lado y entrando, el caballo cocea entre las mesas, destruye vajilla y daña a uno o dos niños y a un perro), que te hace caer y que tienes lesiones o cualquier otro perjuicio, eres tu (o tus padres si eres menor) el civilmente responsable, aunque no seas dueño de mi caballo.
Muy a menudo, las pólizas de los seguros de responsabilidad civil de los dueños aseguran los daños cometidos a terceros por el caballo asegurado aunque este montado por otra persona (lo que cubriría los gastos del camping y de los padres de los niños afectados) pero excluyen su intervención para los daños a las personas que montan el caballo (tus propios daños, cubiertos por la seguridad social o tu seguro de jinete).
No obstante, los seguros de responsabilidad civil de los dueños suelen reservarse el derecho de recuperar los gastos (en este caso, los gastos del camping y de los padres de los niños) contra el verdadero civilmente responsable, que sería, conforme a la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo, el poseedor del animal (tu), y no el dueño (yo).
Solo sería distinto si pudieras probar que, como dueña, he cometido una acción u omisión causando el daño, interviniendo culpa o negligencia (he dado, por ejemplo, un excitante a mi caballo después de haberlo mantenido dos semanas encerrado en su box y no te dije nada).
En resumen, cuidado cuando montas gratuitamente un caballo que no es el tuyo, porque tu propia responsabilidad civil (o la de tus padres si eres menor) no suele estar cubierta, ni por el seguro del dueño, ni por tu licencia de jinete (solo cubre tus propios daños corporales), ni por el seguro del Club. Si sueles montar caballos que no son los tuyos, acercate de tu corredor de seguros a ver si te puede proponer un seguro de responsabilidad civil adecuado.
II.3. Responsabilidad civil de Centros hípicos y Clubes
Si el caballo está alquilado, es otra cosa.
El nexo jurídico que une a jinete y empresa dueña del animal montado, es contractual, de alquiler de éste y de dirección por instructor (contratos de transporte y de arrendamiento de servicios), y es exigible la inversión de la carga de la prueba y la devolución del jinete sano -salvo enfermedad repentina-, al final del trayecto, pues a eso dá derecho el pago del servicio (enseñanza) y del transporte.
Pues, si caes de un caballo alquilado por el Centro Hípico, el Centro será, en principio, el civilmente responsable. Cuidado que con el tema del camping (ver punto II.2: daños a terceros montando tú un caballo que no es tuyo), podríamos volver a la aplicación del artículo 1.905 del Código civil (no hay contrato entre tu y el propietario del camping cual podría exigir tu responsabilidad objetiva como poseedor del animal, con posibilidad para ti, según las circunstancias, de recurrir después contra el Club).
El seguro para Centros Hípicos y Clubes cubre normalmente las instalaciones, la responsabilidad civil del centro y los accidentes de alumnos. No cubre tu propia responsabilidad civil.
III. Los daños de tu caballo
El seguro de Vida de los caballos garantiza generalmente el valor del équido en caso de fallecimiento, sacrificio humanitario, inutilidad, robo del animal. A veces queda ampliada la cobertura a los accidentes que pudieran ocurrir en ocasión de un transporte. Se puede garantizar también el ingreso en hospital veterinario en caso de cólico o por cualquier otra causa.
IV. Otros
Al lado de estos seguros, tienes también, entre otros, el seguro para monitores de Hípica, transportes de caballo, herradores o para la suspensión de concursos y eventos hípicos.
V. Conclusión
Hay muchos seguros hípicos distintos y cada uno garantiza un tipo de riesgo.
Un solo seguro garantiza muy raramente todos los riesgos a la vez. Por ejemplo, sería un error de creer que el seguro del Club o el seguro de responsabilidad civil del dueño te lo aseguran todo.
A mi juicio, el seguro indispensable para cualquier jinete es el seguro de jinete con cobertura más amplia que la que ofrece la licencia federativa.
Indispensable también para los propietarios, el seguro de responsabilidad civil, en principio incluido en la licencia federativa caballar (a no confundir con la licencia federativa de jinete) pero con garantías que pueden ser ampliadas comparando con las coberturas ofrecidas por el mercado.
Cuidado con los jinetes que montan caballos que no son suyos (sobre todo no alquilados y fuera de las clases) porque su propia responsabilidad civil no suele estar cubierta por ningún seguro clásico.
Esto vale solo en España. Si montas en el extranjero, infórmate de las coberturas que te ofrecen.
Según la Ley 10/1990, de 15 de octubre, del Deporte, la asistencia sanitaria derivada de la práctica deportiva general del ciudadano constituye una prestación ordinaria del régimen de aseguramiento sanitario del sector público que le corresponda, y asimismo de los seguros generales de asistencia sanitaria prestados por entidades privadas.
Esto significa que, cualquier caballo que montes (que sea tuyo, alquilado o prestado), si te ocurre un accidente montando, aunque no tengas ningun seguro específico, no tendrás en principio que pagar nada por la curación de tus daños corporales y por la rehabilitación puesto que se aplicará la asistencia sanitaria ordinaria (atención primaria integral de la salud, incluyendo las acciones curativas y rehabilitadoras y asistencia sanitaria especializada, que incluye la asistencia domiciliaria, la hospitalización y la rehabilitación).
Con independencia de otros aseguramientos especiales que puedan establecerse, todos los deportistas federados que participen en competiciones oficiales de ámbito estatal deberán estar en posesión de un seguro obligatorio que cubra los riesgos para la salud derivados de la práctica de la modalidad deportiva correspondiente.
Este seguro, lo tienes con tu licencia federativa de jinete.
Las prestaciones mínimas a cubrir por el seguro obligatorio para deportistas federados son las que constan en el anexo al Real Decreto 849/1993, de 4 de junio y son casi las mismas que las prestaciones de la asistencia sanitaria ordinaria.
En estos seguros obligatorios que cubren los daños que te haces tú, independientemente normalmente de que sea culpa tuya o no (de momento que no lo hagas adrede), no suelen ser incluidos los daños materiales, económicos o indirectos (rompiste tu Blackberry y tus estribos cayendo, perdiste un año de estudios por no poder asistir a los exámenes, daño moral, perdidas económicas por no poder trabajar (días de incapacidad…)).
En otros términos, no tienes mucho más garantías con la licencia federativa que con el aseguramiento sanitario público, el seguro obligatorio justificándose sobre todo por solidaridad con la seguridad social por el hecho de practicar actividades de riesgo.
El seguro de la licencia federativa de jinete cubre lo mínimo (tus propias lesiones corporales en caso de accidente) y no incluye los daños materiales, indirectos, económicos… Si quieres tener una cobertura más amplia, tendrías que contratar un seguro complementario para jinetes y amazonas, que incluya daños materiales, pérdidas económicas… y/o reclamación de daños propios (para cuando un tercero es en realidad el responsable de tu perjuicio).
II. Los daños de terceros: responsabilidad civil
II.1. Responsabilidad civil del dueño (propietario)
Conforme al Artículo 1905 del Código Civil, “el poseedor de un animal, o el que se sirve de él, es responsable de los perjuicios que causare, aunque se le escape o extravíe. Sólo cesará esta responsabilidad en el caso de que el daño proviniera de fuerza mayor o de culpa del que lo hubiese sufrido”.
Se trata de una responsabilidad objetiva por el único hecho de tener un animal que pueda ocasionar un daño (sin que haya culpa o negligencia ninguna por parte del dueño).
Por eso es conveniente tener un seguro de responsabilidad civil, el cual cubre la responsabilidad del propietario frente a los daños, tanto materiales como personales, que su caballo pueda ocasionar tanto montado como en libertad a terceros.
Es muy importante tenerlo, no solo para los daños materiales de los terceros pero también sus daños corporales porque aunque la seguridad social prevea su intervención “gratuita” para el tercero lesionado (ver punto I), conforme al artículo 83 de la Ley General de Sanidad, las Administraciones públicas que hubieran atendido sanitariamente a los usuarios cuando hay un tercero obligado al pago, tendrán derecho a reclamar del tercero responsable el coste de los servicios prestados.
El seguro de responsabilidad civil de los propietarios de caballos tendría que ser obligatorio en las Hípicas donde numerosos caballos codean con otros caballos, jinetes y material de valor.
II.2. Responsabilidad civil del poseedor (el que monta el caballo)
La jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo (T.S. nº 198/2006 , de 8 de Marzo de 2006; T.S. de 16-X-98 ), viene diciendo, respecto a la aplicación del art. 1905 C.c (ver punto II.1) cuando el caballo está montado, que el poseedor del animal, responsable del daño a terceros, no es el propietario del mismo, sino el que efectivamente lo monta, es decir, lo sería el propio jinete.
En otros terminos, si montas gratuitamente mi caballo, que este caballo causa un daño a un tercero (habias decidido ir a tomarte una cerveza en el camping de al lado y entrando, el caballo cocea entre las mesas, destruye vajilla y daña a uno o dos niños y a un perro), que te hace caer y que tienes lesiones o cualquier otro perjuicio, eres tu (o tus padres si eres menor) el civilmente responsable, aunque no seas dueño de mi caballo.
Muy a menudo, las pólizas de los seguros de responsabilidad civil de los dueños aseguran los daños cometidos a terceros por el caballo asegurado aunque este montado por otra persona (lo que cubriría los gastos del camping y de los padres de los niños afectados) pero excluyen su intervención para los daños a las personas que montan el caballo (tus propios daños, cubiertos por la seguridad social o tu seguro de jinete).
No obstante, los seguros de responsabilidad civil de los dueños suelen reservarse el derecho de recuperar los gastos (en este caso, los gastos del camping y de los padres de los niños) contra el verdadero civilmente responsable, que sería, conforme a la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo, el poseedor del animal (tu), y no el dueño (yo).
Solo sería distinto si pudieras probar que, como dueña, he cometido una acción u omisión causando el daño, interviniendo culpa o negligencia (he dado, por ejemplo, un excitante a mi caballo después de haberlo mantenido dos semanas encerrado en su box y no te dije nada).
En resumen, cuidado cuando montas gratuitamente un caballo que no es el tuyo, porque tu propia responsabilidad civil (o la de tus padres si eres menor) no suele estar cubierta, ni por el seguro del dueño, ni por tu licencia de jinete (solo cubre tus propios daños corporales), ni por el seguro del Club. Si sueles montar caballos que no son los tuyos, acercate de tu corredor de seguros a ver si te puede proponer un seguro de responsabilidad civil adecuado.
II.3. Responsabilidad civil de Centros hípicos y Clubes
Si el caballo está alquilado, es otra cosa.
El nexo jurídico que une a jinete y empresa dueña del animal montado, es contractual, de alquiler de éste y de dirección por instructor (contratos de transporte y de arrendamiento de servicios), y es exigible la inversión de la carga de la prueba y la devolución del jinete sano -salvo enfermedad repentina-, al final del trayecto, pues a eso dá derecho el pago del servicio (enseñanza) y del transporte.
Pues, si caes de un caballo alquilado por el Centro Hípico, el Centro será, en principio, el civilmente responsable. Cuidado que con el tema del camping (ver punto II.2: daños a terceros montando tú un caballo que no es tuyo), podríamos volver a la aplicación del artículo 1.905 del Código civil (no hay contrato entre tu y el propietario del camping cual podría exigir tu responsabilidad objetiva como poseedor del animal, con posibilidad para ti, según las circunstancias, de recurrir después contra el Club).
El seguro para Centros Hípicos y Clubes cubre normalmente las instalaciones, la responsabilidad civil del centro y los accidentes de alumnos. No cubre tu propia responsabilidad civil.
III. Los daños de tu caballo
El seguro de Vida de los caballos garantiza generalmente el valor del équido en caso de fallecimiento, sacrificio humanitario, inutilidad, robo del animal. A veces queda ampliada la cobertura a los accidentes que pudieran ocurrir en ocasión de un transporte. Se puede garantizar también el ingreso en hospital veterinario en caso de cólico o por cualquier otra causa.
IV. Otros
Al lado de estos seguros, tienes también, entre otros, el seguro para monitores de Hípica, transportes de caballo, herradores o para la suspensión de concursos y eventos hípicos.
V. Conclusión
Hay muchos seguros hípicos distintos y cada uno garantiza un tipo de riesgo.
Un solo seguro garantiza muy raramente todos los riesgos a la vez. Por ejemplo, sería un error de creer que el seguro del Club o el seguro de responsabilidad civil del dueño te lo aseguran todo.
A mi juicio, el seguro indispensable para cualquier jinete es el seguro de jinete con cobertura más amplia que la que ofrece la licencia federativa.
Indispensable también para los propietarios, el seguro de responsabilidad civil, en principio incluido en la licencia federativa caballar (a no confundir con la licencia federativa de jinete) pero con garantías que pueden ser ampliadas comparando con las coberturas ofrecidas por el mercado.
Cuidado con los jinetes que montan caballos que no son suyos (sobre todo no alquilados y fuera de las clases) porque su propia responsabilidad civil no suele estar cubierta por ningún seguro clásico.
Esto vale solo en España. Si montas en el extranjero, infórmate de las coberturas que te ofrecen.
Segregación de terrenos rústicos bajo la unidad mínima de cultivo para construir casas unifamiliares: sí, es posible y sí, es legal.
Con un terreno rústico común de dos hectáreas, sito en Comunidad Valenciana, compuesto por varias parcelas, se puede llegar a ser promotor inmobiliario “sostenible”, de manera absolutamente legal y favoreciendo una repoblación razonada del medio rural.
Según el artículo 201.1. de la Ley Urbanística Valenciana, toda parcelación o división de terrenos quedará sujeta a licencia municipal, salvo que el Ayuntamiento certifique o declare su innecesariedad.
Según el artículo 201.2. de la Ley Urbanística valenciana, la licencia de parcelación es innecesaria cuando :
b) El correspondiente acto de disposición no aumente el número de fincas originariamente existentes y cumpla las normas sobre su indivisibilidad establecidas por razones urbanísticas;
Según el artículo 202 de la Ley Urbanística Valenciana, son indivisibles:
e) Las parcelas en suelo no urbanizable, y en suelo urbanizable sin programación, salvo que cumplan con los requisitos establecidos en su legislación reguladora.
Estos principios están recogidos también en la disposición adicional segunda punto 1 de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable, según la cual no podrán realizarse actos de división o segregación de fincas o terrenos, cualquiera que sea su finalidad, sin la obtención previa de licencia municipal de parcelación, salvo que el ayuntamiento declare su innecesariedad, o que en virtud de su legislación sectorial especifica quede exenta.
La disposición adicional segunda punto 4.b. de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable, precisa que no podrán autorizarse actos materiales de división o segregación de fincas cuando exista una presunción legal de que tales actos tienen finalidad urbanística. Se presume la presencia de finalidad urbanística, cuando dé lugar a una finca de superficie inferior a la mínima exigible por esta ley para una vivienda aislada y familiar, salvo que no se aumente el número de fincas respecto de las antes existentes, por haber simultánea agrupación o agregación a finca o fincas colindantes de porción o porciones segregadas, siempre que ninguna de las fincas resultantes de tales operaciones, sea inferior a la calificada como indivisible en alguna licencia o autorización anterior y, en su caso, se cumplan las normas sobre indivisibilidad establecidas por razones urbanísticas.
En otros términos, una segregación de terrenos rústicos cuando las fincas resultantes no dan lugar a fincas de superficie inferior a una hectárea, cual es, en Comunidad Valenciana, la mínima exigible para construir una vivienda aislada y familiar, y/o cuando no se aumenta el número de fincas, está totalmente autorizada. Una licencia de segregación sería además innecesaria cuando no se aumenta el número de fincas.
Imaginemos un caso teórico en lo cual tendríamos siete parcelas de menos de tres mil metros cuadrados cada una, con un total de dos hectáreas. Podríamos crear dos nuevas parcelas de una hectárea cada una, agrupando y segregando las parcelas más pequeñas de manera a tener las parcelas deseadas, sin tener que depender de la superficie propia de cada una (teniendo en cuenta la superficie y la ubicación de cada parcela, una sencilla agrupación podría dar una parcela de doce mil metros cuadrados y otra de ocho mil, lo que no permite la construcción de dos viviendas unifamiliares, pero solo de una).
No obstante esto, según el artículo 24 de la Ley 19/1995, de 4 de julio, de modernización de las explotaciones agrícolas, la división o segregación de una finca rústica sólo será válida cuando no dé lugar a parcelas de extensión inferior a la unidad mínima de cultivo, cual es de 2,5 Ha en secano y 0,5 Ha en regadío.
El problema de la prohibición de segregar bajo la Unidad Mínima de Cultivo parece ser un obstáculo insuperable e incompatible con lo expuesto anteriormente.
Pero, según el artículo 25.b, no obstante lo dispuesto en el artículo 24, se permite la división o segregación si la porción segregada se destina de modo efectivo, dentro del año siguiente a cualquier tipo de edificación o construcción permanente, a fines industriales o a otros de carácter no agrario, siempre que se haya obtenido la licencia prevista en la legislación urbanística y posteriormente se acredite la finalización de la edificación o construcción, en el plazo que se establezca en la correspondiente licencia, de conformidad con dicha legislación.
Volvemos pues a los principios desarrollados previamente sobre base de la Ley 10/2004.
De hecho, la ley 2/1997, de 13 de junio, del suelo no urbanizable respecto al régimen de parcelación y de construcción de viviendas aisladas en el medio rural, modificando la antigua ley 4/1992 de suelo no urbanizable (hoy la ley 10/2004), autorizaba ya la parcelación que da lugar a parcela inferior a la Unidad Mínima de Cultivo cuando no reduce la cabida de las fincas a menor superficie que la mínima exigible para la edificación de vivienda familiar. En este ámbito, esta ley regulaba ya las parcelaciones que no aumentan el número de fincas, por haber simultánea agregación a colindantes de porciones segregadas.
Nos queda por recordar y precisar en que condiciones se puede edificar una vivienda familiar en terreno rústico.
Según el artículo 21 de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable, en suelo no urbanizable común, pueden realizarse viviendas aisladas y familiar que no contribuyan a la formación de núcleo urbano.
La mayoría de las Normas subsidiarias de planeamiento municipal consideran que existe posibilidad de formación de núcleo urbano cuando exista tres o mas viviendas en una superficie de terreno de una hectárea circundante a la edificación que se pretenda construir, incluida esta o que se den las circunstancias objetivas que demuestren la existencia de una encubierta parcelación urbana de terrenos.
Esto significa que si no hay otras casas (o solo una) en los alrededores muy próximos a las parcelas, se podría construir en principio dos casas.
Como dicho anteriormente, el artículo 21 de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable prevé por su parte que la parcela mínima para la realización de obras es de 10.000 metros cuadrados.
En conclusión, la segregación de dos hectáreas de terreno rústico en dos parcelas de una hectárea para construir dos casas unifamiliares cuando no hay formación de núcleo urbano es perfectamente posible y legal.
Surge sin embargo la cuestión de la inscripción de las nuevas parcelas en el registro de la propiedad.
Para poder registrar las nuevas fincas, se precisa la licencia de segregación o declaración de innecesariedad.
Esta misma licencia de segregación o declaración de innecesariedad tendría que ser condicionada al otorgamiento de las correspondientes licencias de obra y a la posterior acreditación de la finalización de la edificación, en el plazo que se establezca en la correspondiente licencia, de conformidad con el artículo 25.b de la Ley 19/1995, de 4 de julio. Esto tendría que constar en la nota simple.
Pero, para poder otorgar las licencias de obra que tendrían en principio que aparecer en la nota simple, el Ayuntamiento podría exigir que las nuevas parcelas estén previamente pasadas por registro puesto que a falta de tener unas parcelas de 10.000 metros cuadrados registradas, se podría denegar la licencia de obras.
En otros términos, aplicando estrictamente cada uno de los preceptos legales sobre la segregación de terrenos rústicos y la construcción de casas unifamiliares, la operación es factible y legal pero, la pescadilla se podría morder la cola a la hora de pasar por el registro.
Esperemos una actitud constructiva y positiva por parte de los ayuntamientos y registros, para que estas posibilidades concretas de valorar terrenos rústicos y de favorecer una repoblación razonada del medio rural no quede en letra muerta.
Según el artículo 201.1. de la Ley Urbanística Valenciana, toda parcelación o división de terrenos quedará sujeta a licencia municipal, salvo que el Ayuntamiento certifique o declare su innecesariedad.
Según el artículo 201.2. de la Ley Urbanística valenciana, la licencia de parcelación es innecesaria cuando :
b) El correspondiente acto de disposición no aumente el número de fincas originariamente existentes y cumpla las normas sobre su indivisibilidad establecidas por razones urbanísticas;
Según el artículo 202 de la Ley Urbanística Valenciana, son indivisibles:
e) Las parcelas en suelo no urbanizable, y en suelo urbanizable sin programación, salvo que cumplan con los requisitos establecidos en su legislación reguladora.
Estos principios están recogidos también en la disposición adicional segunda punto 1 de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable, según la cual no podrán realizarse actos de división o segregación de fincas o terrenos, cualquiera que sea su finalidad, sin la obtención previa de licencia municipal de parcelación, salvo que el ayuntamiento declare su innecesariedad, o que en virtud de su legislación sectorial especifica quede exenta.
La disposición adicional segunda punto 4.b. de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable, precisa que no podrán autorizarse actos materiales de división o segregación de fincas cuando exista una presunción legal de que tales actos tienen finalidad urbanística. Se presume la presencia de finalidad urbanística, cuando dé lugar a una finca de superficie inferior a la mínima exigible por esta ley para una vivienda aislada y familiar, salvo que no se aumente el número de fincas respecto de las antes existentes, por haber simultánea agrupación o agregación a finca o fincas colindantes de porción o porciones segregadas, siempre que ninguna de las fincas resultantes de tales operaciones, sea inferior a la calificada como indivisible en alguna licencia o autorización anterior y, en su caso, se cumplan las normas sobre indivisibilidad establecidas por razones urbanísticas.
En otros términos, una segregación de terrenos rústicos cuando las fincas resultantes no dan lugar a fincas de superficie inferior a una hectárea, cual es, en Comunidad Valenciana, la mínima exigible para construir una vivienda aislada y familiar, y/o cuando no se aumenta el número de fincas, está totalmente autorizada. Una licencia de segregación sería además innecesaria cuando no se aumenta el número de fincas.
Imaginemos un caso teórico en lo cual tendríamos siete parcelas de menos de tres mil metros cuadrados cada una, con un total de dos hectáreas. Podríamos crear dos nuevas parcelas de una hectárea cada una, agrupando y segregando las parcelas más pequeñas de manera a tener las parcelas deseadas, sin tener que depender de la superficie propia de cada una (teniendo en cuenta la superficie y la ubicación de cada parcela, una sencilla agrupación podría dar una parcela de doce mil metros cuadrados y otra de ocho mil, lo que no permite la construcción de dos viviendas unifamiliares, pero solo de una).
No obstante esto, según el artículo 24 de la Ley 19/1995, de 4 de julio, de modernización de las explotaciones agrícolas, la división o segregación de una finca rústica sólo será válida cuando no dé lugar a parcelas de extensión inferior a la unidad mínima de cultivo, cual es de 2,5 Ha en secano y 0,5 Ha en regadío.
El problema de la prohibición de segregar bajo la Unidad Mínima de Cultivo parece ser un obstáculo insuperable e incompatible con lo expuesto anteriormente.
Pero, según el artículo 25.b, no obstante lo dispuesto en el artículo 24, se permite la división o segregación si la porción segregada se destina de modo efectivo, dentro del año siguiente a cualquier tipo de edificación o construcción permanente, a fines industriales o a otros de carácter no agrario, siempre que se haya obtenido la licencia prevista en la legislación urbanística y posteriormente se acredite la finalización de la edificación o construcción, en el plazo que se establezca en la correspondiente licencia, de conformidad con dicha legislación.
Volvemos pues a los principios desarrollados previamente sobre base de la Ley 10/2004.
De hecho, la ley 2/1997, de 13 de junio, del suelo no urbanizable respecto al régimen de parcelación y de construcción de viviendas aisladas en el medio rural, modificando la antigua ley 4/1992 de suelo no urbanizable (hoy la ley 10/2004), autorizaba ya la parcelación que da lugar a parcela inferior a la Unidad Mínima de Cultivo cuando no reduce la cabida de las fincas a menor superficie que la mínima exigible para la edificación de vivienda familiar. En este ámbito, esta ley regulaba ya las parcelaciones que no aumentan el número de fincas, por haber simultánea agregación a colindantes de porciones segregadas.
Nos queda por recordar y precisar en que condiciones se puede edificar una vivienda familiar en terreno rústico.
Según el artículo 21 de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable, en suelo no urbanizable común, pueden realizarse viviendas aisladas y familiar que no contribuyan a la formación de núcleo urbano.
La mayoría de las Normas subsidiarias de planeamiento municipal consideran que existe posibilidad de formación de núcleo urbano cuando exista tres o mas viviendas en una superficie de terreno de una hectárea circundante a la edificación que se pretenda construir, incluida esta o que se den las circunstancias objetivas que demuestren la existencia de una encubierta parcelación urbana de terrenos.
Esto significa que si no hay otras casas (o solo una) en los alrededores muy próximos a las parcelas, se podría construir en principio dos casas.
Como dicho anteriormente, el artículo 21 de la ley 10/2004, de 9 de diciembre, de la Generalitat, del Suelo no Urbanizable prevé por su parte que la parcela mínima para la realización de obras es de 10.000 metros cuadrados.
En conclusión, la segregación de dos hectáreas de terreno rústico en dos parcelas de una hectárea para construir dos casas unifamiliares cuando no hay formación de núcleo urbano es perfectamente posible y legal.
Surge sin embargo la cuestión de la inscripción de las nuevas parcelas en el registro de la propiedad.
Para poder registrar las nuevas fincas, se precisa la licencia de segregación o declaración de innecesariedad.
Esta misma licencia de segregación o declaración de innecesariedad tendría que ser condicionada al otorgamiento de las correspondientes licencias de obra y a la posterior acreditación de la finalización de la edificación, en el plazo que se establezca en la correspondiente licencia, de conformidad con el artículo 25.b de la Ley 19/1995, de 4 de julio. Esto tendría que constar en la nota simple.
Pero, para poder otorgar las licencias de obra que tendrían en principio que aparecer en la nota simple, el Ayuntamiento podría exigir que las nuevas parcelas estén previamente pasadas por registro puesto que a falta de tener unas parcelas de 10.000 metros cuadrados registradas, se podría denegar la licencia de obras.
En otros términos, aplicando estrictamente cada uno de los preceptos legales sobre la segregación de terrenos rústicos y la construcción de casas unifamiliares, la operación es factible y legal pero, la pescadilla se podría morder la cola a la hora de pasar por el registro.
Esperemos una actitud constructiva y positiva por parte de los ayuntamientos y registros, para que estas posibilidades concretas de valorar terrenos rústicos y de favorecer una repoblación razonada del medio rural no quede en letra muerta.
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